Comparison and measurement

BASIC METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

In accordance with two interrelated levels of scientific knowledge (empirical and theoretical), they distinguish empirical methods scientific research (observation, description, comparison, measurement, experiment, induction, etc.), with the help of which the accumulation, recording, generalization and systematization of experimental data, their statistical processing, and theoretical (analysis and synthesis, analogy and modeling, idealization, deduction, etc.); with their help, the laws of science and theory are formed.

In progress scientific research It is advisable to use a variety of methods rather than limit yourself to just one.

Observation

Observation– this is a purposeful systematic perception of an object, delivering primary material for scientific research. Observation is a method of cognition in which an object is studied without interfering with it. Focus – most important characteristic observations. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of the object repeatedly and in different conditions, systematicity, eliminating gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.

Direct observations in the history of science were gradually replaced by observations using increasingly advanced instruments - telescopes, microscopes, cameras, etc. Then an even more indirect method of observation appeared. It made it possible not only to zoom in, enlarge or capture the object being studied, but also to transform information inaccessible to our senses into a form accessible to them. In this case, the intermediary device plays the role of not only a “messenger”, but also a “translator”. For example, radars transform captured radio rays into light pulses that our eyes can see.

As a method of scientific research, observation provides initial information about an object necessary for its further research.

Comparison and measurement

Important role Comparison and measurement play a role in scientific research. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. Comparison – it is an operation of thinking through which the content of reality is classified, ordered and evaluated. When comparing, a pairwise comparison of objects is made in order to identify their relationships, similar or distinctive features. Comparison makes sense only in relation to a set of homogeneous objects that form a class.

Measurement – this is finding physical quantity experimentally using special technical means.

Purpose of measurement is to obtain information about the object under study.

Measurement can be carried out in the following cases:

– in purely cognitive tasks in which a comprehensive study of an object is carried out, without clearly formulated ideas for applying the results obtained in applied activities;

– in applied problems related to identifying certain properties of an object that are essential for a very specific application.

The theory and practice of measurement deals with metrology - the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and methods of achieving the required accuracy.

The exact sciences are characterized by an organic connection between observations and experiments with finding the numerical values ​​of the characteristics of the objects under study. In the figurative expression of D.I. Mendeleev, “science begins as soon as they begin to measure.

Any measurement can be carried out if the following elements are present: measurement object, the property or state of which characterizes measured quantity; unit; measurement method; technical measuring instruments, graduated in selected units; observer or recording device, perceiving the result.

There are direct and indirect measurements. In the first of them, the result is obtained directly from the measurement (for example, measuring length with a ruler, mass with weights). Indirect measurements are based on the use of a known relationship between the desired value of a quantity and the values ​​of directly measured quantities.

Measuring instruments include measuring instruments, measuring instruments and installations. Measuring instruments are divided into exemplary and technical.

Exemplary products are standards. They are intended for testing to check technical, i.e. working means.

The transfer of unit sizes from standards or standard measuring instruments to working instruments is carried out by state and departmental metrological bodies that make up the domestic metrological service; their activities ensure the uniformity of measurements and the uniformity of measuring instruments in the country. The founder of the metrological service and metrology as a science in Russia was the great Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev, who created the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures in 1893, which carried out, in particular, a lot of work on the implementation metric system in the country (1918 – 1927).

One of most important tasks When carrying out measurements, it is to establish their accuracy, that is, to determine errors (errors). Inaccuracy or measurement error call the deviation of the result of measuring a physical quantity from its true value.

If the error is small, then it can be neglected. However, two questions inevitably arise: firstly, what is meant by a small error, and secondly, how to estimate the magnitude of the error.

The measurement error is usually unknown, as is the true value of the measured quantity (exceptions are measurements of known quantities carried out for the special purpose of studying measurement errors, for example, to determine the accuracy of measuring instruments). Therefore, one of the main tasks of mathematical processing of experimental results is precisely the assessment of the true value of the measured quantity based on the results obtained.

Let's consider the classification of measurement errors.

There are systematic and random measurement errors.

Systematic error remains constant (or changes naturally) with repeated measurements of the same quantity. The permanent causes of this error include the following: poor-quality materials, components used for the manufacture of devices; unsatisfactory operation, inaccurate calibration of the sensor, the use of measuring instruments of a low accuracy class, deviation of the thermal regime of the installation from the calculated one (usually stationary), violation of assumptions under which the design equations are valid, etc. Such errors are easily eliminated when debugging the measuring equipment or introducing special corrections to the value of the measured quantity.

Random error changes randomly with repeated measurements and is caused by the chaotic action of many weak, and therefore difficult to identify, causes. An example of one of these reasons is reading a dial gauge - the result depends unpredictably on the operator's viewing angle. The random measurement error can only be assessed using the methods of probability theory and mathematical statistics. If the error in an experiment significantly exceeds the expected one, then it is called a gross error (miss), and the measurement result in this case is discarded. Gross errors arise as a result of violation of the basic measurement conditions or as a result of an oversight by the experimenter (for example, in poor lighting, instead of 3, 8 is recorded). If a gross error is detected, the measurement result should be immediately discarded and the measurement itself should be repeated (if possible). An external sign of a result containing a gross error is its sharp difference in value from the results of other measurements.

Another classification of errors is their division into methodological and instrumental errors. Methodological errors are caused by theoretical errors of the chosen measurement method: deviation of the thermal regime of the installation from the calculated (stationary) one, violation of the conditions under which the design equations are valid, etc. Instrumental errors caused by inaccurate calibration of sensors, errors in measuring instruments, etc. If methodological errors in a carefully carried out experiment can be reduced to zero or taken into account by introducing corrections, then instrumental errors cannot be eliminated in principle - replacing one device with another of the same type changes the measurement result.

Thus, the most difficult errors to eliminate in experiments are random and systematic instrumental errors.

If measurements are carried out repeatedly under the same conditions, then the results of individual measurements are equally reliable. Such a set of measurements x 1, x 2 ...x n is called equal-precision measurements.

With multiple (equal-precision) measurements of the same quantity x, random errors lead to a scatter of the obtained values ​​x i, which are grouped near the true value of the measured quantity. If we analyze a sufficiently large series of equal-precision measurements and corresponding random measurement errors, then four properties of random errors can be distinguished:

1) the number of positive errors is almost equal to the number of negative ones;

2) small errors are more common than large ones;

3) the magnitude of the largest errors does not exceed a certain limit, depending on the accuracy of the measurement;

4) the quotient of dividing the algebraic sum of all random errors by their total number is close to zero, i.e.

Based on the listed properties, taking into account certain assumptions, the law of distribution of random errors is mathematically quite strictly derived, described by the following function:

The law of distribution of random errors is fundamental in the mathematical theory of errors. Otherwise, it is called the normal distribution law of the measured data (Gaussian distribution). This law is shown in graph form in Fig. 2

Rice. 2. Characteristics of the normal distribution law

р(x) – probability density of obtaining individual values ​​x i (the probability itself is depicted by the area under the curve);

m – mathematical expectation, the most probable value of the measured value x (corresponding to the maximum of the graph), tending to infinity large number measurements to the unknown true value x; , where n is the number of measurements. Thus, the mathematical expectation m is defined as the arithmetic mean of all values ​​x i,

s – standard deviation of the measured value x from the value m; (x i - m) – absolute deviation of x i from m,

The area under the curve of a graph in any interval of x values ​​represents the probability of obtaining a random measurement result in that interval. For a normal distribution, 0.62 of all measurements taken fall within the ±s interval (relative to m); the wider ±2s interval already contains 0.95 of all measurements , and almost all measurement results (except for gross errors) fit within the ±3s interval.

The standard deviation s characterizes the width of the normal distribution. If you increase the measurement accuracy, the scatter of results will sharply decrease due to a decrease in s (distribution 2 in Fig. 4.3 b is narrower and sharper than curve 1).

The ultimate goal of the experiment is to determine the true value of x, which, in the presence of random errors, can only be approached by calculating the mathematical expectation m for an increasing number of experiments.

The spread of the values ​​of the mathematical expectation m, calculated for a different number of measurements n, is characterized by the value s m; When compared with the formula for s, it is clear that the spread of the value of m, as an arithmetic mean, in Ön is less than the spread of individual measurements x i. The given expressions for s m and s reflect the law of increasing accuracy with increasing number of measurements. It follows from it that to increase the accuracy of measurements by 2 times, it is necessary to make four measurements instead of one; to increase the accuracy by 3 times, you need to increase the number of measurements by 9 times, etc.

For a limited number of measurements, the value of m still differs from the true value of x, therefore, along with the calculation of m, it is necessary to indicate a confidence interval , in which the true value of x is found with a given probability. For technical measurements, a probability of 0.95 is considered sufficient, so the confidence interval for a normal distribution is ±2s m. The normal distribution is valid for the number of measurements n ³ 30.

In real conditions, a technical experiment is rarely carried out more than 5–7 times, so the lack of statistical information should be compensated by expanding the confidence interval. In this case, for (n< 30) доверительный интервал определяется как ± k s s m , где k s – коэффициент Стьюдента, определяемый по справочным таблицам

As the number of measurements n decreases, the coefficient k s increases, which expands the confidence interval, and as n increases, the value of k s tends to 2, which corresponds to the confidence interval of the normal distribution ± 2s m.

The end result of multiple measurements constant value Always reduced to the form: m ± k s s m .

Thus, to estimate random errors, it is necessary to perform the following operations:

1). Write down the results x 1 , x 2 ...x n of repeated measurements of n constant value;

2). Calculate the average value from n measurements - mathematical expectation;

3). Determine the errors of individual measurements x i -m;

4). Calculate the squared errors of individual measurements (x i -m) 2;

If several measurements differ sharply in their values ​​from other measurements, then you should check whether they are a miss (gross error). When excluding one or more measurements of p.p. 1...4 repeat;

5). The value s m is determined - the spread of the values ​​of the mathematical expectation m;

6). For the selected probability (usually 0.95) and the number of measurements taken n, the Student coefficient k s is determined from the lookup table;

Values ​​of Student's coefficient k s depending on the number of measurements n for a confidence level of 0.95

7). The boundaries of the confidence interval ± k s s m are determined

8). The final result m ± k s s m is recorded.

Instrumental errors cannot be eliminated in principle. All measuring instruments are based on a specific measurement method, the accuracy of which is finite.

Instrumental errors cannot be eliminated in principle. All measuring instruments are based on a specific measurement method, the accuracy of which is finite. The instrument error is determined by the accuracy of the instrument scale division. So, for example, if the scale of a ruler is marked every 1 mm, then the accuracy of the reading (half the value of the 0.5 mm division) cannot be changed if you use a magnifying glass to examine the scale.

There are absolute and relative measurement errors.

Absolute error D of the measured quantity x is equal to the difference between the measured and true values:

D = x - x source

Relative error e is measured in fractions of the found value x:

For the simplest measuring instruments - measuring instruments The absolute measurement error D is equal to half the division value. The relative error is determined by the formula.

Question No. 2. Forms and methods of empirical research: fact, observation and experiment; comparison, measurement, description and systematization.

Forms and methods of scientific research.

Empirical level– the object under study is reflected from external connections that are accessible to living contemplation and express internal relationships. Experimental research is directly aimed at the object.

The signs of empirical knowledge are the collection of facts, their primary generalization and description of the observed data, their systematization and classification - the main techniques and means - comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction. At the same time, experience is not blind; it is planned and constructed by theory.

Empirical and theoretical. In science, there are empirical and theoretical levels of research. This difference is based on:

Methods of cognitive activity.

The nature of the results achieved.

Empirical research involves developing a research program, organizing observations and experiments, describing and summarizing experimental data, their classification, and initial generalization. In a word, empirical knowledge is characterized by fact-fixing activity. Theoretical knowledge e is essential cognition, carried out at the level of abstractions of high orders. Here the tools are concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses. Historically, empirical knowledge precedes the theoretical, but only this way cannot achieve complete and true knowledge.

Empirical research, reveals all new data observations And experiments, poses new challenges to theoretical thinking and stimulates it to further improvement. However, the enriching theoretical knowledge puts before observation and experimenting with increasingly complex problems.

All sorts of things observation doesn't start with collection facts, but from an attempt to solve some problem, which is always based on a well-known assumption, guess, statement of the problem.

Problem statement and research program. People strive to know what they do not know. Problem- this is a question with which we turn to nature itself, to life, to practice and theory. Posing a problem is sometimes no less difficult than finding its solution: the correct formulation of a problem to a certain extent directs the search activity of thought, its aspiration. When a scientist poses a problem and tries to solve it, he inevitably develops a research program and builds a plan for his activities. In doing so, he proceeds from the expected answer to his question. This supposed answer comes in the form of a hypothesis.

Observation and experiment. Observation is a deliberate, directed perception aimed at identifying existing properties and relations of the object of knowledge. It can be direct and mediated by devices. Observation acquires scientific significance when, in accordance with the research program, it allows one to display objects with the greatest accuracy and can be repeated many times under varying conditions.

But a person cannot limit himself to the role of only an observer: observation only records what life itself gives, and research requires an experiment, with the help of which the object is either reproduced artificially or placed in given conditions that meet the goals of the research. During the experiment, the researcher actively intervenes in the research process.

In the process of cognition, a thought experiment is also used, when a scientist operates with certain images in his mind and mentally puts an object in certain conditions.

Experiment bilateral On the one hand, it is able to confirm or refute a hypothesis, and on the other hand, it contains the ability to identify unexpected new data.

Thus, experimental activity has complex structure: theoretical foundations of the experiment- scientific theories, hypotheses; material basis- devices; direct implementation of the experiment; experimental observation; quantity and quality of analysis of experimental results, their theoretical generalization.

A necessary condition for scientific research is to establish facts. Fact, from factum- “done”, “accomplished”. A fact is a phenomenon of the material or spiritual world that has become a certified property of our consciousness, the fixation of any object, phenomenon, property or relationship. “Facts are the air of a scientist”, - said Pavlov. The most characteristic thing about a scientific fact is its reliability. The fact must be meaningful and justified. Facts always turn out to be mediated by our understanding and interpretation. For example, witness statements. People talk about the same thing, but somehow differently. Thus, obviousness is by no means a complete guarantee of the real reliability of a fact.

Data in themselves do not constitute science. Facts must be subjected to selection, classification, generalization and explanation, then they will be included in the fabric of science. Fact contains a lot of random stuff. Therefore, the basis for scientific analysis is not just single fact, but a lot of facts reflecting the main trend. Only in mutual connection and integrity data can serve as a basis for theoretical generalization. Any theory can be constructed from appropriately selected facts.

Description. During observations and experiments, descriptions and recordings are carried out. The main scientific requirement for a description is its reliability, the accuracy of reproducing observational and experimental data. E.Mach He considered description to be the only function of science. He noted: "Does the description provide everything that a scientific researcher might require? I think so!" Explanation and Foresight Max essentially reduced it to a description. From his point of view, theories are like compressed empirics. E.Mach wrote: “The speed with which our knowledge expands thanks to theory gives it some quantitative advantage over simple observation, while qualitatively there is no difference between them.” significant difference neither in relation to the origin, nor in relation to the final result." Atomic-molecular theory Max called "mythology of nature." The famous chemist took a similar position V. Ostwald. On this occasion A. Einstein wrote: “The prejudice of these scientists against the atomic theory can undoubtedly be attributed to their positivist philosophical attitude. This is - interesting example how philosophical prejudices prevent the correct interpretation of facts even by scientists with bold thinking and subtle intuition. A prejudice that has survived to this day is the belief that facts by themselves, without free theoretical construction, can and should lead to scientific knowledge."

Integration in science is associated, first of all, with the unification of various methods of scientific research. The development of scientific methodology has led to a unified scientific standard; of course, these methods are a level of abstraction and in each specific area they have their own objectivity. In addition, there are general scientific methods, such as applying mathematical methods research of objects in all sciences without exception. Integration is also progressing in terms of unifying theory and seeing them internal relationship based on discovery fundamental principles being. This does not mean the abolition of these sciences, but this is only a deeper level of penetration into the essence of the phenomena being studied - the creation general theories, metatheories and common methods proof. There is a unification of sciences on the principle of a new level of abstraction, an example of which can again be systems theory.

Source of available data.

In almost all statistical packages it is specified by a string of values

variables.

Synonym: case.

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Observation

general scientific method of empirical research. In sociology it is used primarily for collecting and simple generalization of primary information. The latter is the recorded acts of verbal or real behavior of the observation unit. Unlike natural sciences Where N. is considered the simplest type of research, in sociology scientific N. is one of the most complex and time-consuming methods. Its complexity is due to the specificity of the relationship between the subject and the object of observation, in which a person acts as both subject and object. This relationship is actually subject-subject social attitude, which predetermines the inevitability of their mutual influence in the research process, and therefore the possibility of obtaining artifacts and “deformed” information. Therefore, the use of this method is usually associated with the development of complex technical techniques that ensure the reliability of the initial data. N.'s reliability is ensured primarily by the adequacy of its conditions to the type of interaction between subject and object, the degree of formalization of the procedure, and the representativeness of the information. For any sociological research, depending on whether those observed know about it or not, the following types of interaction are characteristic: 1. Involved (participating) research, when the observed are aware of the presence of the researcher in the group. The subject, by virtue of the very fact of inclusion, feels the influence of the object, and to a certain extent becomes the object itself. The object reacts to the presence of the subject. In this case, it is necessary;) complex correction of the data N, which receives deformation due to the “disturbing” mutual influence of the subject and the object. 2. Included N., when the observed do not know about it. The subject also feels the influence of the object, but the object does not react to the presence of the subject. In this case, the reliability of information increases, but problems arise in the ethics of research, registration and completeness of information. 3. Unincluded N., when the observed ones know about it. The object does not significantly influence the subject, but itself reacts to its presence. This reaction (change in behavior) is the main reason for the deformation of the primary data and must be taken into account by the subject. 4. Unincluded N., when the observed do not know about it. In the interaction of subject and object, there is actually no “disturbing” influence. However, the possibility of deformation and loss of information increases due to a more limited field of observation. In this case, as in the previous one (3), there is a high probability of organizational and technical errors. In the named types of interaction between the subject and the object of N., the problem of eliminating “disturbing” factors is solved as a problem of taking into account specific conditions, scientific organization and conduct of research, as well as sufficient control of data for validity, stability and accuracy. To ensure this, the object of N. must first of all be defined in a specific empirical situation. Depending on whether it is natural or artificially created, the type of interaction is determined. The empirical situation must then be codified in terms of hypothesis and research program. Accordingly, they are developing headings for indicators I. one system indication of empirical situations makes it possible to unify data, carry out their comparability and quantitative processing on a computer or manually. As a result, sociological N., contrary to widespread skepticism, make it possible, with good training of observers, to obtain data whose correlation reaches 0.75-0.95. The main advantage of N. is that this method allows you to directly study interactions, connections and relationships between people and make reasonable empirical generalizations. At the same time, on the basis of such generalizations it is more difficult to establish patterns of phenomena, identify their determinants, distinguish between randomness and the need for social processes. Therefore, sociological research must be used in combination with other research methods to provide a comprehensive examination of the object.

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Theory building methods

1. Private, used only in a particular area (for example, an excavation method in archaeology)

2. General scientific, used by different sciences, making it possible to connect together all aspects of the cognition process:

– general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy)

– methods of empirical knowledge (observation, experiment, measurement, modeling)

– methods theoretical knowledge(abstraction, idealization, formalization)

3. Universal (dialectics, metaphysics, trial and error)

In the structure of science, there are empirical and theoretical levels and, accordingly, empirical and theoretical methods scientific knowledge.

Empirical knowledge has a complex structure:

1. The simplest level– these are single empirical statements (protocol sentences recording the results of observations, the exact place and time of observations, etc.)

2. Facts - information about reality, this general statements about the presence or absence of an event, properties of an object. A fact records empirical knowledge. The fact appears in the form of a graph, table, classification.

3. Empirical laws: functional, causal, structural, dynamic, statistical. These laws are characterized by temporal or spatial constancy; they have the nature of general statements (for example, all metals are electrically conductive). Scientific empirical laws, like facts, are general hypotheses.

4. Phenomenological theories are a logically organized set of empirical laws and facts. They are conjectural knowledge.

The differences between levels of empirical knowledge are quantitative rather than qualitative. They differ only in the degree of commonality of ideas about what is observed.

Methods of the empirical level of scientific knowledge.

OBSERVATION- this is an active cognitive process, based on the one hand on the work of the senses, on the other - on the means and methods developed by science for interpreting the readings of the senses.

Features: focus; orderliness; activity.

Always accompanied by a description of the object. The description must give a reliable and adequate picture of the object and accurately reflect the phenomena. The concepts used for description must have a clear, unambiguous meaning.

In observation, there is no activity aimed at transforming, changing objects of knowledge due to the inaccessibility of these objects (remote space objects), undesirability, based on the purposes of the study, interference in the process (natural, psychological, etc.).

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct (sense organs) and indirect (instruments), indirect (nuclear physics - tracks, waste products). Indirect observations are necessarily based on some theoretical principles.

Observation involves:

Clear goal setting;

Selection of methodology;

Setting up a plan; systematic;

Monitoring the purity of the results;

Processing, that is, comprehension and interpretation of the results obtained.

The condition for observation is the relationship between the observer and the object of knowledge. By recording an observation using language, we obtain an empirical statement.

An empirical statement has the following properties:

1. It reflects events independently of the observer, i.e. it is objective in content.

2. It expresses the event in some controlled way. One event can be observed by many observers, but they will express it in just words.

3. Epistemological function of observation. With its help, we transfer the actually observed situation into the realm of consciousness, turning it into something ideal. The transfer of the material into the ideal is a prerequisite for subsequent cognitive operations.

MEASUREMENT– a procedure that records not only the qualitative characteristics of an object, but also the quantitative ones. The measurement is carried out using certain instruments (ruler, scales, etc.). measurement as a way cognitive activity, began to be used during the time of Galileo. Methodology: a set of techniques using certain principles and measuring instruments. Measurements can be made either by the researcher himself or by instruments. The problem is the choice of unit of measurement (standard). Types: static and dynamic, direct and indirect. Accuracy depends on the level of technology development.

EXPERIMENT is a method of scientific research that involves changing an object or reproducing it under specially specified conditions.

Depending on the purposes of the study, there are:

1) research experiment. The goal is to discover something new

2) verification experiment. The goal is to establish the truth of the hypothesis.

According to the object of study there are:

Nature experiment

Social experiment.

According to the methods of implementation, they are distinguished:

Natural and artificial

Model and spontaneous

Real and mental

Scientific and industrial

It involves an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object under study to identify and study certain aspects, properties, connections, and includes observations and measurements.

Features: allows you to study an object in a “purified” form; During the experiment, the object was placed in artificial conditions; active influence on its course; reproducibility; possibility of varying one or more parameters

Conditions: the goal is required; based on theoretical principles; has a plan; requires a certain level of development of technical means of cognition.

Types: Depending on the nature of the problems solved during the experiments, they are divided into research and testing. Depending on the area scientific knowledge: natural science, applied (in technical sciences, agricultural science, etc.) and socio-economic.

THEORETICAL CONDITIONALITY

Empirical knowledge can never be reduced only to pure sensibility. Even the primary layer of empirical knowledge - observational data - represents a complex interweaving of the sensory and rational. But empirical knowledge cannot be reduced to observational data. It also involves the formation of a special type of knowledge – a scientific fact – based on observational data. Scientific fact arises as a result of very complex rational processing of observational data.

Modeling as a method of empirical level of knowledge

Experiment, experiment planning

Observation and measurement

LECTURE 16

TOPIC: METHODS OF THE EMPIRICAL LEVEL OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

The method of scientific research is a way of understanding objective reality. A method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations. Taking into account the dependence of the level of scientific knowledge, methods of the empirical and theoretical levels are distinguished. Methods of the empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, experiment. To methods theoretical level Scientific knowledge includes axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive) and formalization. There are methods that are used at both levels of scientific knowledge, such as: modeling, abstraction, generalization, classification and general logical methods.

The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration.

Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

A methodology is a set of research methods and techniques, the order of their application and the interpretation of the results obtained with their help. It depends on the nature of the object of study, methodology, purpose of the study, methods developed, and the general level of qualifications of the researcher.

Observation- systematic, purposeful perception of any individual aspects of an object or the object as a whole.

Based on the method of conducting, observations are distinguished between direct and indirect. At direct observations certain properties, aspects of an object are perceived by human senses. Vicarious Observations carried out using technical means.

The observations do not contain activities aimed at transforming or changing the objects of knowledge. This is due to a number of circumstances:

The inaccessibility of these objects for practical influence;

The undesirability, based on the goals of the study, of interference in the observed process;

Lack of technical, energy, financial and other opportunities for influence.

In biology, direct observations are divided into:

1) field or expedition;

2) laboratory or stationary.

At field examination methods include:

Route;

Key;

Area;

Combined (to study the area, routes are distinguished; these routes are examined using systems of key points).

Laboratory observations differ from field observations in the greater repeatability of observations and in the fact that the equipment is usually fixed at the observation point. In laboratory conditions, the possibility of using measuring equipment is incomparably higher than in field conditions.

The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways.

Description- ϶ᴛᴏ fixation by means of natural or artificial language of signs of the object being studied, which are established by observation or measurement. Description happens:

1) direct when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the characteristics of an object;

2) indirect when the researcher notes the features of an object that were perceived by other persons.

Check- ϶ᴛᴏ determination of quantitative relationships between objects of study or parameters characterizing their properties. The method is widely used in statistics to determine the degree and type of variability of a phenomenon, process, the reliability of the obtained average values ​​and theoretical conclusions.

Most scientific observations involve making a variety of measurements.

Measurement- ϶ᴛᴏ determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. Measurement is a procedure for determining the numerical value of a certain quantity using a unit of measurement. The value of this procedure is that it provides accurate, quantitative information about the surrounding reality.

The most important indicator of the quality of a measurement and its scientific value is accuracy, which depends on the researcher and on the available measuring instruments.

Highlight the following types measurements:

1) by the nature of the dependence of the measured quantity on time:

Static (the measured value remains constant over time);

Dynamic (the measured value changes over time during the measurement process).

2) according to the method of obtaining results:

Direct measurements (the value of the measured quantity is obtained by directly comparing it with a standard or is given measuring instrument);

Indirect measurements (a value is determined on the basis of a known mathematical relationship between this value and other values ​​obtained by direct measurements).

Comparison- ϶ᴛᴏ comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding commonality in them, carried out both by the senses and with the help of special devices.

Observation and measurement - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Observation and Measurement" 2017, 2018.