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Language is a unique set of sounds and symbols, each of which has specific value. Language is important tool human interaction and communication. Thanks to language, we can express our thoughts in tangible speech form.

Language is not only a means of communication, it is also the historical memory of every people. Each language reflects the spiritual culture and centuries-old history of each nation.

Language is a social phenomenon, because outside social relations it is impossible to master it. A person does not have the gift of speech from the moment of birth. After all Small child starts talking only when he manages to learn to repeat phonetic sounds, which are published by the people around him, and thanks to his ability to think, he gives them the correct meaning.

The emergence of language

In the first stages of its emergence, language consisted of inarticulate sounds made by primitive people and was accompanied by active gesticulation. Later, with the advent of Homo sapiens, language takes on an articulated form, thanks to his ability to think abstractly.

Thanks to language, primitive people began to exchange experiences and plan their joint actions. An articulate language brought ancient people to a new stage of their evolutionary development, and became another factor that could bring man to a more advanced stage. highest level from other biological species.

Also during this period, the language acquired a mystical coloring; ancient people believed that certain words have magical properties, which help stop an impending natural disaster: this is how the first magic spells appear.

Functions of modern language

The main functions of modern language are communicative and mental. The main one, of course, is communicative: thanks to language, people can communicate with each other, convey necessary information each other, express your thoughts, feelings, wishes.

With the help of the mental function of language, a person not only has the opportunity to convey his thoughts to others, but also forms his own with the help of language.

Along with those mentioned above, there is also such a function of language as epistemological or cognitive - a person analyzes all the information received from other members of society, thanks to this the process begins scientific knowledge the surrounding world.

Language also has an aesthetic function, which is most often used in works of art. Thanks to its use in literature, such a language gives people a feeling of aesthetic pleasure, it provokes them to emotions, makes the human soul worry.

Language development and society development

The development of language is inextricably linked with the development of society. Language is a living organism that is influenced by historical, political and social change in the life of the public.

Under the influence of time, some words die out and go out of use forever; in their place, new words come into the language that best meet the requirements of the time.

Language is, of course, a huge gift for humanity. Therefore, we must appreciate it, try not to litter it with profanity and parasitic words, because by doing this we are causing great harm, first of all, to the centuries-old culture of our people and our personality.

1. Ya (English language) - a system of signs of any physical nature, serving as a means of human communication and thinking) in the proper sense of Ya words - a phenomenon that is socially necessary and historically conditioned. One of the immediate natural manifestations of language is speech as vocal and verbal communication.

2. Ya (English tongue) - an anatomical term denoting a muscle growth at the bottom of the oral cavity; takes part in the actors and is the organ of taste.

I-CONCEPT (eng. self-concept) is a developing system of a person’s ideas about himself, including: a) awareness of his physical, intellectual, characterological, social, etc. properties; b) self-esteem, c) subjective perception of those influencing one’s own personality external factors. The concept of I-k. was born in the 1950s in line with phenomenological, humanistic psychology, whose representatives (A. Maslow, K. Rogers), in contrast to behaviorists and Freudians, sought to consider the holistic human self as a fundamental factor in behavior and personality development. Symbolic interactionism (C. Cooley, J. Mead) and the concept of identity (E. Erikson) also had a significant influence on the formation of this concept. However, the first theoretical developments in area Ya-k. undoubtedly belong to W. James, who divided the global, personal I (Self) into the interacting I-conscious (I) and I-as-object (Me).

I-k. often defined as a set of attitudes aimed at oneself, and then, by analogy with attitude, three structural components are distinguished in it: 1) a cognitive component - “self-image”, which includes the content of ideas about oneself; 2) the emotional-value (affective) component, which is the experienced attitude towards oneself as a whole or towards individual aspects of one’s personality, activities, etc.; This component, in other words, includes a system of self-esteem (English: self-esteem), 3) a behavioral component, which characterizes the manifestations of cognitive and evaluative components in behavior (including in speech, in statements about oneself).

I-k. - a holistic education, all components of which, although they have a relatively independent logic of development, are closely interconnected. It has conscious and unconscious aspects and is described from the point of view. the content of ideas about oneself, the complexity and differentiation of these ideas, their subjective significance for the individual, as well as internal integrity and consistency, coherence, continuity and stability over time.

In the literature there is no single scheme for describing the complex structure of the ego. Eg.* R. Berne represents J-k. in the form of a hierarchical structure. The top is global I-k., concretized in the totality of the individual’s attitudes toward himself. These attitudes have different modalities: 1) the real I (what I think I really am); 2) ideal self (what I would like and/or should become); 3) mirror IXhow others see me). Each of these modalities includes a number of aspects - physical self, social self, mental self, emotional self.

The discrepancy between the “ideal self” and the “real self” is the basis for self-esteem feelings and serves as an important source of personality development, however, significant contradictions between them can become a source of intrapersonal

conflicts and negative experiences (see Inferiority complex).

Depending on what level - organism, social individual or personality - a person’s activity manifests itself, in the I-k. distinguish: 1) at the “organism-environment” level - a physical self-image (body diagram), caused by the need for the physical well-being of the organism; 2) at the level of the social individual - social identities: gender, age, ethnic, civil, social-role, associated with a person’s need to belong to a community; 3) at the level of the individual - a differentiating image of the Self, characterizing knowledge about oneself in comparison with other people and giving the individual a sense of his own uniqueness, providing the needs for self-determination and self-realization. The last 2 levels are described in the same way as the 2 components of Y-k. (V.V. Stolin): 1) “connecting”, ensuring the unification of the individual with other people and 2) “differentiating”, promoting his isolation in comparison with others and creating the basis for a sense of one’s own uniqueness.

Also distinguished are the dynamic “I” (how, according to my ideas, I change, develop, what I strive to become), the “presented I” (“I-mask”, how I show myself to others), the “fantastic I”, the triad of chronological I: I -past, present self, future self, etc.

The most important function J-k. is to ensure the internal consistency of the individual and the relative stability of his behavior. The I-k itself is formed under the influence life experience person, primarily child-parent relationships, however, early enough it acquires an active role, influencing the interpretation of this experience, the goals that the individual sets for himself, the corresponding system of expectations, forecasts about the future, assessment of their achievement - and thereby on own formation, personality development, activity and behavior. Ratio concepts I-k. and self-awareness is not precisely defined. They often act as synonyms. At the same time, there is a tendency to consider I-k. as a result, the final product of the processes of self-awareness. (A.M. Parishioner.)

Language

A commonly accepted set of symbols or gestures that allows us to convey information and communicate with other members of our culture who speak the same language. The main problem with this definition is the degree to which it is stretchable. The debate surrounding attempts to teach animals human language leaves open the question of whether language can truly serve as a universal means of communication or whether linguistic subtleties are unique to human beings.

LANGUAGE

tongue, glossa) - an organ formed by striated muscle tissue; attached to the diaphragm of the mouth. In a language, there are apex, body and root. The skeletal muscles of the tongue connect it with the mental spine of the lower jaw, the hyoid bone and the styloid process of the temporal bone. The surface of the tongue is covered with a mucous membrane, which passes into the mucous membrane of the oral cavity and pharynx. On the lower surface of the tongue, the mucous membrane forms a fold - the frenulum of the tongue (frcnulum linguae). The surface of the tongue is covered with papillae (papillae), which give the tongue a rough appearance (see figure); the papillae are outgrowths of the lamina propria of the mucous membrane, covered with epithelium. Language performs three main functions. It helps move food through the mouth during chewing and swallowing, is an organ of taste, and plays an important role in articulate speech. Anatomical name: tongue (glossa).

LANGUAGE

Everyone knows the meaning of this term - language is what we speak, a set of arbitrary conventional symbols with the help of which we convey meaning, culturally specific model vocal gestures, which we learn because we grew up in a certain place and time, the medium through which we encode our feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiences, the most unique and human of behaviors and the most common behavior of people. However, in reality, the term can mean all of the above, none of these, or even things very different from these. The conviction that we know the meaning of the word language lasts only as long as we refrain from trying to clarify what we know. In order to appreciate the problems associated with the definition and use of this term, consider the following questions, (a) Is the system of manual signs used by completely deaf people a language? (b) Are synthetic systems designed to program computers real languages? (c) Can the invented coding systems of sociopolitical reformers, such as Esperanto, be classified as languages? (d) Should sequences of motor movements, body postures, gestures and facial expressions that convey meaning be considered language? (e) Is there a good reason to call the communication systems of other species, such as bees, dolphins, or chimpanzees, languages? (f) At what point can we conclude that the vocalizations produced by the infant have become language? These questions, and many others like them, are not easy to answer. They are given here to illustrate the complexity contained in this word, a complexity that renders any simple definition useless. See linguistics, paralinguistics, psycholinguistics, sign language, and related terms.

LANGUAGE

a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, mental activity, a way of expressing self-awareness, transmission from generation to generation and storage of information. Historically, Japan arose thanks to labor and joint activities of people. It exists and is realized through speech, which is successive (linear), presuppositional (referring to encyclopedic knowledge), situational, and incomplete. Inaccuracy in the expression of thoughts may. cause of conflicts. Therefore, the poorer a person’s self, the less lexicon, the more difficult it is for him to organize good communication, the more often conflicts may arise. "My tongue is my enemy". Conflicts also arise due to the use of conflict-generating words, expressions and gestures. Ya plays an important role in the activities of conflict experts and other persons in conflict resolution. All information impact conflictologist on the participants in the conflict is carried out mainly with the help of I. Conflictology as a science is information recorded with the help of I. See Language of conflictology

Language

A system of signs that serves as a means of interhuman communication and mental activity, a way of expressing a person’s self-awareness, transmitting information from generation to generation. Language exists and is realized through speech. The English neuropsychologist Critchly (M. Critchly, 1974) considers language as “the expression and perception of thoughts and feelings through verbal symbols.”

LANGUAGE

a system of signs of any physical nature that serves as a means of human communication, mental activity, a way of expressing self-awareness, and transmission. information from generation to generation. Historically, the basis for the emergence of the self is labor, Team work of people. The language can be natural (the language of words) or artificial (the language of programming, the language of mathematics, the language of descriptions of operator activities, etc.). One of the direct manifestations of the natural self is speech as vocal and verbal communication.

LANGUAGE

1) a system of signs of any configuration, serving as a means of human (including national) communication, as well as thinking; 2) a means of storing and transmitting information; 3) one of the means of controlling human behavior; 4) one of the foundations of ethnicity, ensuring the unity of both the ethnic group, the state, and the entire society as a whole. The language of words is a socio-psychological phenomenon, socially necessary and historically conditioned. The natural manifestation of the language is speech. The national language is a means of communication, accumulation and expression of experience by representatives of specific ethnic communities, influencing their national psychological characteristics (see) and the national identity that forms them (see). It underlies culture, expresses it, is the most important mechanism of formation, self-determination, differentiation. ethnicity, a means of social advancement. Along with religion, it ensures the development of ethnic identification. The change of identity or its loss stimulates assimilation (see), acculturation (see) of the ethnic group. Characteristics Self are: specificity, determined by ideas about its uniqueness and independence; social prestige, which is based on communicative value (prevalence). The functions of Ya are diverse - communicative^ and integration, political. With the help of language, channels of communication with a foreign ethnic environment and familiarization with other cultures of other peoples are created. Attachment to the native language determines the painful reaction to persecution of the language, the ease of mobilization in the corresponding movements, and the readiness to respond to the call to speak out in its defense. On the basis of language, ethnolinguistic communities are formed, and the ethnic group is divided into parts united common language. On German spoken by Germans and Austrians, Spanish - by Spaniards and peoples Latin America, in English - the British, Americans, Australians, New Zealanders, in Kabardian-Circassian - Kabardians and Circassians, the Belgians speak French and Walloon, the Mari - Mountain Mari and Lugomari, Mordovians - Moksha and Erzya. Language is part of the symbolic resources of power (political and ethnic), along with the banner, coat of arms, etc. The right to speak and write in one’s native language is part of collective, ethnic rights. Ya status determines linguistic equality or inequality, and reflects general position ethnic group in society (privileged, dominant or discriminated against). The language issue most often becomes aggravated with high consolidation of an ethnic group and with the implementation of a policy of language imposition. On this basis, ethnolinguistic movements arise. Ya exists in various forms: oral, colloquial or literary, non-written and written; operates at the level - national, local, local. Accordingly, the following are distinguished: the language of interethnic communication; official, used in public administration; regional; local, including tribal, dialects; autochthonous or national, native or foreign.

Language is the most ancient and main property of man as a biological species, distinguishing him from other living beings. In linguistics, the science of language, the following definition is used: language is a sign system, created naturally or artificially, with the help of which people communicate and formulate their mental activity.

Origin of language

Education and language development along with labor activity played a key role in the development of man as a rational being. One of the most important issues in the question of the origin of language is its ability to reflect reality. Words, like signs of language, have no resemblance to the object they denote. Nevertheless, a clear image of an object appears in a person’s mind when he hears or sees a word denoting it.

To understand how a language appeared, the sound complex of which in itself does not reflect anything, scientists are developing various Onomatopoeic theory considers the origin of the first words as a reproduction of the sounds and noises of nature. However, it cannot explain the presence of different sound shells for the same phenomenon in different languages. According to the interjection theory, the original word is based on an emotional exclamation or cry denoting a person’s state. This theory, in turn, does not explain the entire diversity of language, which could not have come from interjections alone.

Some scientists suggest that the first words were nouns; man initially sought to reflect the objects and phenomena of reality. Others believe that verbal forms are primary, a person first of all performed an action and, on its basis, built a picture of the world.

Thus, each theory of the origin of language depends on the function that is assigned to it.

Language functions

The essence of language, its main characteristics are manifested in its functions. Among large quantity The most significant functions of language are identified.

• Communication function. By definition, language is the main means of communication between people.
• Thinking or cognitive function. Language serves as the main means of formation and expression of mental activity.
• Cognitive function. Language allows you to create new words and concepts, and also acts as a means of storing and transmitting information.
• Other functions (phatic, emotive, appellative, aesthetic, etc.).

Language and speech

The term language cannot be identified with the concept of speech. First of all, language is a means of communication, and speech is its embodiment. Main characteristics language - its abstractness and formality, while speech is characterized by materiality, because it consists of articulated sounds that are perceived by the ear.

Unlike stable and static language, speech is an active and dynamic phenomenon. It is worth noting that language is a public property and reflects the picture of the world of the people speaking it, and speech, in turn, is purely individual and reflects the experience specific person. Language, as a complex sign system, has a level organization, while speech is characterized by a linear organization. And finally, language does not depend on specific situation and environment, while speech is conditioned contextually and situationally. Thus, we can say that language relates to speech as the general relates to the particular.

Units and levels of language

The main ones are phoneme, morpheme, word and sentence. In accordance with each unit, a separate language level is formed. So the lowest level is phonetic, which consists of the simplest linguistic units - phonemes. The phoneme itself has no meaning and acquires a meaningful function only as part of a morpheme. The morpheme (morphemic level), in turn, is the shortest meaningful unit of language. There are derivational (form words) and grammatical (form word forms) morphemes.

A word (lexical-semantic level) represents the main significant unit of language, which can have syntactic independence. It serves to designate objects, phenomena, processes and properties. Words are divided into certain groups: the system of parts of speech (based on grammatical features), a system of synonyms and antonyms (based on semantic relations), groups of archaisms, historicisms and neologisms (in a historical perspective), etc.

A sentence (syntactic level) is a combination of words that expresses a certain thought. The sentence is characterized by semantic and intonation completeness and structure. There are simple and complex sentences. It should be noted that the unit of each level of language is an element of the construction of the unit of the next level.

Languages ​​of the world

According to various estimates, there are about 7,000 languages ​​in the world. All of them are divided into the following groups:

• common and not common;
• written and unwritten;
• "living" and "dead";
• artificial and natural.

Based on linguistic kinship, a genetic one has been created; according to it, there is another definition of language. This is primarily an attitude towards a specific ancestor language. As a rule, the Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan and Ural-Altaic families of languages ​​are distinguished. All languages ​​of one family are based on one parent language.

Russian language

Russian language is one of the Indo-European languages language family and is a language of global importance. Russian language is National language Russian people. The Russian language uses a writing system based on the Russian alphabet, which goes back to the Cyrillic alphabet. Moreover, in the Russian language, not everything is indicated by letters, but only the basic sounds of speech. So the number of letters in the alphabet is 33, and the sound system contains 43 sounds, of which 6 are vowels and 37 are consonants. The classification of sounds of the Russian language is made on the basis of articulatory properties. In this case, sounds are distinguished by the method of their pronunciation and by areas speech apparatus involved in their pronunciation.

There is also a classification of the sounds of the Russian language according to acoustic characteristics. This takes into account the participation of voice and noise in the formation of sound. Russian is one of the most difficult languages ​​in the world to learn.

Thus, we can give the following definition: “Language is a complex polysemantic concept in which it is considered primarily as a multi-level sign system that is in organic unity with human thinking.”

Diagnosis of diseases by language is one of the main stages when examining a patient and making a general diagnosis, most often used in the East. This type of diagnostics allows us to learn about the processes occurring in our body, the origin and stage of development of certain diseases.

Language is an indicator of our health, this has always been known in the East, where such an unusual, but quite effective method diagnostics - diagnosis of diseases by language.

In Eastern medicine, the tongue is believed to be connected to the heart. Here we mean not only the physical state of the tongue, but also the speech that we pronounce - all this indicates certain problems with the heart. However, the body is a single whole, and the condition of the heart also affects other organs. And the state of various organs of our body is “projected” onto the corresponding parts of the tongue. Accordingly, changes in these areas of the tongue, including changes in their color or increased sensitivity, indicate disturbances and imbalances of energies in the corresponding organs.

According to ancient Chinese medicine, the tip of the tongue corresponds to the upper part of the body and reflects the condition of the lungs and heart, the sides of the tongue indicate the health of the liver and gall bladder, the back of the tongue indicates the health of the stomach and spleen, and the root of the tongue indicates the condition of the kidneys.

Often, the first signs of the disease appear on the tongue (discoloration, plaque, redness, etc.). Therefore, when diagnosing diseases by tongue, first of all, pay attention to the size, shape and color of the tongue. According to Eastern medicine, when there is an imbalance of wind energy (rlung), the tongue is red, dry and rough, with small indentations along the edges. When mucus energy (beken) is disturbed, the tongue may have a smooth or dull surface, it may be slightly swollen, moist and sticky, with a whitish-gray coating. An imbalance of bile energy in the body (trip) also changes the appearance of the tongue: a pale yellow coating appears on it, and a bitter taste is felt in the mouth.

Diagnosis of diseases by language

Best time to diagnose diseases by language - in the morning on an empty stomach. First, the projections of all internal organs and any changes are noted. These changes allow us to talk about the state of the corresponding organ or body systems, and, above all, about the state of the blood. The doctor pays attention to the color of the tongue, the type of plaque on different areas tongue, surface shape (smooth, loose, dense, etc.), formations on the tongue (bubbles, papillomas, ulcers) and their location, tongue mobility.

What does the tongue look like? healthy person? Such a language has pink color And smooth surface, covered with a small whitish coating, the papillae on the surface of the tongue are clearly visible, due to which it looks velvety.

Connection of tongue areas with internal organs

The root of the tongue is the intestines;

To the left of the tip of the tongue is the left lung, to the right is the right;

The center of the tongue is the heart;

On the left side of the root of the tongue is the left kidney, with right side- right;

On the right side, between the projections of the lung and kidney, there is a projection of the liver.

Tongue color

1. Pale tongue - lack of energy and blood. This is a sign of anemia and exhaustion of the body.

2. Pale color of the underside of the tongue - liver and gall bladder diseases.

3. Red (crimson) color - severe infectious diseases accompanied by high temperature, poisoning, pneumonia.

4. Dark red color - severe renal and toxic disorders, obesity and chronic alcoholism.

5. A bluish tint - cardiovascular diseases, circulatory disorders with cardiopulmonary failure.

6. Yellowness in the lower part of the tongue - the development of jaundice.

Plaque on the tongue

A coating covering the tongue indicates the accumulation of toxins in the stomach, small or large intestine. If only the back of the tongue is covered with plaque, there are toxins in the large intestine; if the plaque is noticeable only in the middle of the tongue, toxins are present in the stomach, small intestine and duodenum.

1. No plaque, shiny tongue - weak stomach energy, problems with intrasecretory activity.

2. Slightly swollen and moist tongue due to excess plaque. May indicate the following diseases: stomach or duodenal ulcer, gastritis, cholecystitis, appendicitis, poor kidney function, food or drug poisoning, infectious diseases (measles).

3. Thin plaque - an incipient disease or its superficial localization. Thick plaque is a chronic disease.

4. White, moist, thin plaque - the energy of the stomach is in order.

5. Weak white coating- decreased acidity in the stomach, dysbacteriosis.

6. Yellowish plaque - excess bile in the gallbladder or liver disease.

7. Fatty, silty coating - stagnation of food.

8. Purple spotty plaque - blood stagnation.

9. Black plaque is a serious disorder of the digestive system, especially the pancreas and gall bladder. Also, such plaque occurs when the acid-base balance of the blood is disturbed (increased acidity) as a result of dehydration of the body.
11. Light gray coating - diphtheria.

12. If over time the white plaque gradually thickens and becomes yellow, and then gray and dark, this indicates that the disease is progressing. And if the plaque becomes lighter and thinner, the disease recedes.

Spots on tongue

1. Alternating white and red spots - scarlet fever.

2. Bluish spots - congestion in the cardiovascular system.

3. Dark spots- severe kidney damage.

Also, when diagnosing diseases by language, you need to pay attention to:

1. Teeth marks on the edges of the tongue. Deep teeth imprints on the front and side of the tongue indicate stress, neuroses, and severe overwork. The clearest prints are observed in cases of serious diseases of the central nervous system. In addition, tooth marks along the edges of the tongue indicate dysbiosis, slagging in the body and insufficient intestinal digestibility.

2. " Dry tongue" The feeling of a “dry” tongue and general dryness of the mucous membrane occurs as a result of the production of an insufficient amount of saliva (thirst) and can be a sign of a large number of diseases: intestinal obstruction, peritonitis, fever, diabetes. Often, dry tongue is accompanied by the appearance of a brown coating. If the mucous membrane loses too much moisture, it may develop cracks. Dry tongue also causes loss of taste.

3. Lacquered and checkerboard tongue. Varnished tongue - the surface is smooth, shiny, bright red (as a result of atrophy of the taste buds). Diseases: chronic colitis, pellagra, stomach cancer. “Chess” tongue is a type of varnished tongue. Occurs as a result of deficiency of vitamin B and nicotinic acid.

4. Uenlargement and redness of the papillae of the tongue. Enlargement and redness of the papillae on the right half of the tongue, closer to the tip, indicates liver damage, the left half - spleen disease, on the tip of the tongue - pelvic organ disease, and along the edges and in the middle of the tongue - lung disease.

5. Curvature of the tongue line indicates curvature of the spine: curvature of the fold at the root of the tongue indicates curvature of the spine in the lumbar region, curvature of the fold in the center of the tongue indicates curvature in thoracic region, curvature of the line at the tip of the tongue - curvature in the cervical spine (cervical osteochondrosis).

6. Curvature or deviation of the tongue to the side- vascular disorders of the brain (stroke), mental illness.

7. Trembling tongue- brain disease, deep neurotic disorder.

8. Ulcers on the tongue. Ulcers on the surface of the tongue may indicate a disease of the digestive system (Crohn's disease).

We have listed only the main signs by which tongue diseases can be diagnosed. This diagnostic method requires the skill of a doctor, the ability not only to notice changes in the language, but also to combine the information received in order to make a correct diagnosis, which can be confirmed by subsequent diagnostic methods.

What is Language?

Language is a term that has several meanings:

1. A system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serves as the most important means of communication between people. Being inextricably linked in its emergence and development with a given human collective, language is a social phenomenon. Language forms an organic unity with thinking, since one does not exist without the other.

2. A type of speech characterized by certain stylistic features. Book language. Colloquial. Poetic language. Newspaper language. See speech in the 2nd meaning.

On the issue of the relationship between the concepts “language” and “speech”, different points of view have emerged in modern linguistics.

The connection and interaction of both phenomena was first noted by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure:

“Without a doubt, both of these subjects are closely related to each other and mutually presuppose each other: language is necessary for speech to be understood and produce” its effect; speech, in turn, is necessary for language to be established; historically, the fact of speech always precedes language. Following Ferdinand de Saussure, many researchers (V.D. Arakin, V.A. Artemov, O.S. Akhmanova, L.R. Zinder, T.P. Lomtev, A.I. Smirnitsky and others) differentiate these concepts, finding sufficient general methodological and linguistic grounds for this. Language and speech are contrasted on various grounds: a system of means of communication - the implementation of this system (the actual process of speaking), a system of linguistic units - their sequence in the act of communication, a static phenomenon - a dynamic phenomenon, a set of elements in a paradigmatic plan - their totality in a syntagmatic plan, the essence - phenomenon, general - separate (particular), abstract - concrete, essential - insignificant, necessary - random, systemic - non-systemic, stable (invariant) - variable (variable), usual - occasional, normative - non-normative, social - individual, reproducible - produced in the act of communication, code - exchange of messages, means - goal, etc. Some linguists consistently make this distinction in relation to correlative units different levels language and speech: phoneme - a specific sound, morpheme - a syllable, lexeme - a word, phrase - a syntagma, a sentence - a phrase, a complex syntactic whole - a super-phrase unity. Other scientists (V.M. Zhirmunsky, G.V. Kolshansky, A.G. Spirkin, A.S. Chikobava) deny the difference between language and speech, identifying these concepts. Still others (E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, V.N. Yartseva), without contrasting or identifying language and speech, define them as two sides of one phenomenon, characterized by properties that are complementary and interconnected in nature.