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A word can have one lexical meaning. Such words are called unambiguous, For example: dialogue, purple, saber, on alert, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen

There are several types unambiguous words

1. These include, first of all, proper names (Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok). Their extremely specific meaning excludes the possibility of varying the meaning, since they are the names of individual objects.

2. Words that have recently arisen and are not yet widely used are usually unambiguous. (briefing, grapefruit, pizza, pizzeria and so on.). This is explained by the fact that in order to develop polysemy in a word, it must be used frequently in speech, and new words cannot immediately gain universal recognition and distribution.

3. Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous (binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase). Many of them denote objects of special use and therefore are rarely used in speech (beads, turquoise). This helps them maintain clarity.

4. One meaning, as a rule, distinguishes the terms: tonsillitis, gastritis, fibroids, syntax, noun.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. These words are called polysemantic, they are opposed unambiguous words. The ability of words to have multiple meanings is called polysemy. For example: word root- ambiguous. In the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova, four meanings of this word are indicated:

1. The underground part of the plant. The apple tree has taken root. 2. Interior tooth, hair, nail. Turn red to the roots of your hair. 3. trans. The beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. Root- significant part of a word.

Direct meaning of the word- this is its main meaning. For example, adjective gold means "made of gold, consisting of gold": gold coin, gold chain, gold earrings.

figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary, non-basic meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. Golden autumn, golden curls- the adjective in these phrases has a different meaning - figurative (“similar to gold in color”). Golden time, golden hands- in these examples the adjective has figurative meaning- “beautiful, happy.”

The Russian language is very rich in such transfers:

wolf skin- voracious appetite;

iron nail- iron character.

If we compare these phrases, we can see that adjectives with a figurative meaning not only tell us about some quality of a person, but evaluate it, figuratively and vividly describe it: golden character, deep mind, warm heart, cold look.

The use of words in a figurative meaning gives speech expressiveness and imagery. Poets and writers are looking for fresh, unexpected, accurate means of conveying their thoughts, feelings, emotions, and moods. Based on the figurative meaning of words, they are created special means artistic representation: comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet and etc.

Thus, based on the figurative meaning of the word, the following are formed:

comparison(one object is compared to another). The moon is like a lantern; fog like milk;

metaphor(hidden comparison). Rowan bonfire(rowan, like a fire); bird cherry sprinkles snow(cherry bird is like snow);

personification(human properties are transferred to animals and inanimate objects). The grove dissuaded me; the cranes do not regret; the forest is silent;

epithet(figurative use of adjectives). Golden grove; birch tongue; pearl frost; dark fate.

When polysemous, one of the meanings of a word is direct, and everyone else - portable.

Direct meaning of the word- this is its main lexical meaning. It is directly aimed at the subject (immediately evokes an idea of ​​the subject, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in

direct meaning.

Portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:

Toy, -and, and. 1. A thing used for playing. Kids toys.

2. transfer One who blindly acts according to someone else’s will is an obedient instrument of someone else’s will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object or phenomenon is transferred, transferred also to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects or phenomena simultaneously. Depending on the basis on which the name is transferred,” there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.

Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - this is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple - eyeball(by form); human nose- bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- airplane wing(by function); the dog howled- the wind howled(according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes

Metonymy(then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity *, for example: water is boiling- behindthe kettle is boiling; porcelain dish- tasty dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A type of metonymy is synecdoche.

Synecdoche(from the Greek “synekdoche” - co-implying) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currants; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(O superfluous person in family); bighead- clever mind etc.

In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding its basic meaning. Over time figurative meanings may become straight.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Compare, for example, the sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so it could go both wayssee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the deepest bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)

* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about border.

In the first sentence the word corner used in its literal meaning: “the place where two sides of something meet or intersect.” And in stable combinations “in a blind corner”, “bearish corner” the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a remote corner- in remote areas, bearliving corner - desolate place.

In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning of the word is given first, and figurative values ​​are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. The value recorded as figurative recently comes with the mark "peren" For example:

Wood,-oh, -oh. 1. Made from wood, 2. trans. Motionless, unexpressive. Wooden facial expression. ABOUT Wood oil- cheap grade of olive oil.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word

Each word has a basic lexical meaning.

For example, desk- this is a school table, green- color of grass or foliage, There is- this means eating.

The meaning of the word is called direct , if the sound of the word accurately indicates an object, action or sign.

Sometimes the sound of one word is transferred to another object, action or sign based on similarity. The word acquires a new lexical meaning, which is called portable .

Let's look at examples of the direct and figurative meaning of words. If a person says a word sea, he and his interlocutors have an image of a large body of water with salty water.

Rice. 1. Black Sea ()

This is the direct meaning of the word sea. And in combinations sea ​​of ​​lights, sea of ​​people, sea of ​​books we see the figurative meaning of the word sea, which denotes a large number of something or someone.

Rice. 2. City lights ()

Gold coins, earrings, cup- These are objects made of gold.

This is the direct meaning of the word gold. The following phrases have a figurative meaning: goldhair- hair with a brilliant yellow tint, skillful fingers- this is what they say about the ability to do something well, goldenheart- this is what they say about a person who does good.

Word heavy has a direct meaning - to have significant mass. For example, heavy load, box, briefcase.

Rice. 6. Heavy load ()

The following phrases have a figurative meaning: tough task- complex, not easy to solve; hard day- a difficult day that requires effort; hard look- gloomy, stern.

Girl jumping And temperature fluctuates.

In the first case - a direct value, in the second - figurative (rapid temperature change).

boy running- direct meaning. Time is running out- portable.

Frost has frozen the river- figurative meaning - means that the water in the river is frozen.

Rice. 11. River in winter ()

House wall- direct meaning. About heavy rain we can say: wall of rain. This is a figurative meaning.

Read the poem:

What kind of miracle is this?

The sun is shining, the rain is falling,

There's a big beautiful river by the river

The rainbow bridge is rising.

If the sun is shining brightly,

The rain is pouring mischievously,

So this rain, children,

Called mushroom!

Mushroom rain- figurative meaning.

As we already know, words with multiple meanings are polysemous.

The figurative meaning is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only from the context, i.e. in a sentence. For example:

Candles were burning on the table. Direct meaning.

His eyes sparkled with happiness. Figurative meaning.

You can ask for help from explanatory dictionary. The literal meaning of the word is always given first, and then the figurative meaning.

Let's look at an example.

Cold -

1. having low temperature. Wash the hands cold water. A cold wind blew from the north.

2. Transfer. About clothes. Cold coat.

3. Transfer. About color. Cool shades of the picture.

4. Transfer. About emotions. Cold look. Cold meeting.

Consolidating knowledge in practice

Let us determine which of the highlighted words are used in a literal and which in a figurative meaning.

At the table the mother said:

- Enough tongue wagging.

And my son is careful:

- A swing your legs Can?

Rice. 16. Mom and son ()

Let's check: wag your tongue- figurative meaning; swing your legs- direct.

Flocks of birds fly away

Out for the blue sea,

All the trees are shining

In multicolored attire.

Rice. 17. Birds in autumn ()

Let's check: blue ocean- direct meaning; colorful tree decoration- portable.

The breeze asked as it flew by:

- Why are you rye, golden?

And in response, the spikelets rustle:

- Gold us hands are being raised.

Let's check: golden rye- figurative meaning; golden hands- figurative meaning.

Let's write down the phrases and determine whether they are used in a literal or figurative meaning.

Clean hands, an iron nail, a heavy suitcase, a voracious appetite, a difficult character, Olympian calm, iron hand, Golden ring, golden man, wolf skin.

Let's check: clean hands- direct, iron nail- direct, heavy bag- direct, voracious appetite- portable, difficult character- portable, Olympian calm- portable, iron hand- portable, Golden ring- direct, Golden man- portable, wolf skin- direct.

Let's make up phrases, write down phrases in a figurative meaning.

Angry (frost, wolf), black (paints, thoughts), runs (athlete, stream), hat (mom’s, snow), tail (fox, train), hit (frost, hammer), drums (rain, musician).

Let's check: angry frost, dark thoughts, a stream running, a cap of snow, the tail of a train, frost has struck, rain is drumming.

In this lesson we learned that words have literal and figurative meanings. The figurative meaning makes our speech figurative and vivid. Therefore, writers and poets love to use figurative meaning in their works.

In the next lesson we will learn which part of the word is called the root, learn how to isolate it in the word, and talk about the meaning and functions of this part of the word.

1. Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Education, 2012 (http://www.twirpx.com/file/1153023/)
2. Buneev R.N., Buneeva E.V., Pronina O.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Balass.
3. Ramzaeva T.G. Russian language. 2. - M.: Bustard.

1. Openclass.ru ().
2. Festival of pedagogical ideas "Open Lesson" ().
3. Sch15-apatity.ucoz.ru ().

• Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Education, 2012. Part 2. Do the exercise. 28 P. 21.
• Select correct option answers to the following questions:

1. Science studies the vocabulary of a language:

A) phonetics

B) syntax

B) lexicology

2. The word is used figuratively in both phrases:

A) heart of stone, build a bridge

B) heat of the sun, stone edition

C) golden words, make plans

3. In which series are the words ambiguous:

A) star, artificial, stone

B) single, blinds, jockey

B) stony, caftan, composer

• * Using the knowledge gained in class, come up with 4-6 sentences with words field And give, where these words are used in direct and figurative meanings.

Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.

About the literal and figurative meaning of the word

Even from the elementary grades of school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).

But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);

2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);

4) exposure rocks(In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).

What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word

Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

1. Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
2. Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
3. Synecdoche (transfer general meaning for part of it).

The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.

What is a metaphor

As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).

The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

• by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city ​​- main area);
• by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
• by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
• on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).

The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.

Metaphorical rethinking based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics is also not uncommon: Gray mouse- gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife- sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).

The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he's already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).

Metonymy is an important way of word formation process

With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:

• the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
• part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
• an important place where something is concentrated.

Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in the early period of his work" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”

Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.

What is synecdoche

Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of indicating an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trope.

How and when is synecdoche used?

Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we are talking about: “ Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”

Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them grotesqueness or humorous overtones.

The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.

A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used to mean “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.

How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word

As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without an ending.”

Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:

1. Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
2. Human temperament (passionate) nature).
3. Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
4. Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).

But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from French, is already outdated, in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.

How words are used figuratively: examples

Words with a figurative meaning are often used as means of expression fiction, media, and advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberate collision in subtext is very popular different meanings one word. So, oh mineral water the ad says, “A source of cheerfulness.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”

The authors works of art To give them brightness and imagery, they use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.

There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.

Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning

In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their places in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.

It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, talking about ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, when reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.

Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”

Summary of a Russian language lesson in 6th grade

(teacher: Nesvat L.N., teacher of Russian language and literature MKOU OOSH village.

Ershovka, Vyatskopolyansky district, Kirov region)

LESSON TOPIC:

Direct and figurative meaning of words.

Goals: 1)

To introduce students to the literal and figurative lexical meaning of a word

2)

To develop the ability to find words with a figurative meaning in the text,

4)

Develop skills in working with spelling and punctuation.

During the classes:

Motivation.

1) Teacher's word:

Friends, before announcing the topic of today's lesson, I want to ask you a question,

related to literature, do you know who Ilya Muromets is?

(People's hero, hero of many epics)

In one of the epics about Ilya Muromets there are the following words: “The word is like an apple: from one

green on one side, ruddy on the other, you know how to turn it, girl...”

Think about the meaning of this sentence: The word, if we consider it from different sides,

miscellaneous - “Green on one side”, “Ruddy on the other”. And most importantly: "You know how to do it, girl

turn over", i.e. know how to use your words, as a word can have more than one meaning

It turns out that a word, in addition to its direct meaning, can also have another meaning,

portable. This is the topic of the lesson: “Direct and figurative meaning of the word”

(write in notebooks).

2) Write on the board:

iron nails, iron health.

Teacher's explanation: In the phrase iron nails the adjective means

What is the meaning of the word green? (Unripe,

unripe)

11)

Information on the use of figurative words in fiction

works. (Information from the textbook).

Vocabulary work: personification, metaphor

13) Execute exercise 339

Teacher:

Words with a figurative meaning make it bright and expressive not only

poetic speech, but also prose.

15) Let's turn to exercise 342.

a) Reading the text.

b) Determination of speech style, type of speech.

c) Determining the title of the text.

d) Vocabulary work: azure, coral, sapphire.

16) Recording text, explaining spelling.

: I hope you will be able to determine the literal and figurative meaning of a word. A

When you were very little, you probably didn’t understand a lot. Famous

children's writer K.I. Chukovsky recorded several statements of children who did not know

Reading the following statements by role and explaining the words used in

figurative meaning:

“I won’t go to school,” said fifth-grader Seryozha. - There on exams

cutting.

b) - Here In winter it will snow and frost will hit

-And then I won’t go outside.

- Why?

- So that the frost doesn’t hit me.

V) The boy is asked about his sister

- What does your sister Irinka lie down with the roosters?

She doesn’t lie down with the roosters - they peck: she goes to bed alone in her crib.

Mom washed the shirt and asked Petya to hang it to dry in the sun.

Petya left, but soon returned with the shirt.

- Why didn't you hang it up to dry?

- I don't “reached the sun,” answered Petya.

19)

Teacher:

Children, did you hear funny stories. No less fun, I think

will seem to you ex. 340.

20) Exercise: In each pair of sentences, indicate the words used directly

figurative meaning.

The wind howls and whistles in the chimney. The dog howls.

The tired day turned to night. The tired boy bowed his head to

mother's shoulder.

Dad came home from work. The long-awaited day of departure has finally arrived.

The hostess warmed the water. A cheerful song warmed us on the way.

21) Let's summarize the lesson.

a) How does a figurative meaning differ from a direct one?

b) Why are words with figurative meanings used in speech?

) Homework:

Theoretical information on pp. 132-133, exercise 338