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In time immemorial, a civilization arose on the territory of modern Egypt in the Nile Valley, leaving behind many secrets and mysteries. Even now it attracts the attention of researchers and ordinary people with its color, its unusualness and rich heritage.

Thirty Dynasties of Egyptian Rulers

It is not known exactly when the hunting tribes entered the Nile Valley and discovered there was a lot of food and a wide river as a reliable source of water. Years passed. Rural communities organized here increased in size and became richer. Then they divided into two kingdoms - the Lower (in the south) and the Upper (in the north). And in 3200 BC. e. ruler Menes was able to conquer Lower Egypt and organized the first dynasty of pharaohs, under whose control was both the delta and the valley of the great Nile.

Map of a unified Ancient Egypt

During the dynastic period, Ancient Egypt often became the dominant state in the region. This state had a complex social structure, advanced technologies for those times, a powerful army and developed internal trade. In addition, the Egyptians managed to achieve fantastic success in the field of construction - they were able to build effective irrigation systems on the banks of the Nile, huge temples and pyramids that capture the imagination of even modern people. In addition, the Egyptians invented the hieroglyphic writing system, organized an effective judicial system, and did many other important and amazing things.

In total, starting from 3200 BC. e., until the conquest of the Egyptians by the Persians in 342 BC. e. there were thirty dynasties of rulers of Egypt. These are truly Egyptian dynasties - that is, their representatives were Egyptians themselves, and not conquerors from distant lands. The last pharaoh of the thirtieth dynasty was Nectanebo II. When the Persians invaded his state, he collected his treasures and fled south.

However, the history of Ancient Egypt, as many believe, does not end there yet. Then Alexander the Great was able to recapture Egypt from the Persians, and subsequently Ptolemy, Alexander's military commander, began to rule this region. Ptolemy I proclaimed himself king of Egypt in 305 BC. e. He used local traditions preserved from the ancient pharaohs to gain a foothold on the throne. This (and the fact that he died of natural causes and not as a result of a conspiracy) shows that Ptolemy was a fairly intelligent ruler. As a result, he managed to create his own special dynasty, which ruled here for more than 250 years. By the way, the last representative of the Ptolemaic dynasty and the last queen of Egypt was the legendary Cleopatra VII Philopator.

Some legendary pharaohs

Pharaohs stood at the top of the social ladder and were considered equal to gods. The pharaohs were given great honors; they were considered so powerful that people were literally afraid to touch them.

The pharaohs traditionally wore an ankh around their necks, a magical symbol and talisman to which the Egyptians attached great importance. There have been many pharaohs over the centuries and millennia of Egypt's existence, but several of them are worth special mention.

Almost the most famous Egyptian pharaoh - Ramses II. He ascended the throne when he was about twenty years old and ruled the country for almost seven decades (from 1279 to 1213 BC). During this time, several generations have changed. And many of the Egyptians who lived at the end of the reign of Ramses II believed that he was a real immortal deity.

Another pharaoh worthy of mention - Djoser. He reigned in the 27th or 28th century BC. e. It is known that during his reign the city of Memphis finally became the capital of the state. However, Djoser went down in history primarily because he built the very first pyramid in Ancient Egypt (it is also the world’s first stone architectural structure). More precisely, it was built by the vizier of Djoser - a man with outstanding abilities named Imhotep. Unlike the later pyramid of Cheops, the pyramid of Djoser consists of steps. Initially, it was surrounded by a wall with 15 doors, and only one of them opened. At this point, there is nothing left of the wall.

There were several female pharaohs in the history of Ancient Egypt. One of them is Hatshepsut, who ruled in the 15th century BC. e. Her name can be translated as “being in front of noble ladies.” Having removed the young Thutmose III from the throne and declaring herself pharaoh, Hatshepsut continued the restoration of Egypt after the Hyksos raids and erected a large number of monuments on the territory of her state. In terms of the number of progressive reforms carried out, she surpassed many male pharaohs.

During the time of Hatshepsut, it was believed that the pharaohs were the incarnations of the god Horus in the earthly world. In order not to sow confusion among the people, the priests reported that Hatshepsut was the daughter of the god Amun. But at many ceremonies, Hatshepsut still appeared in male attire and with a fake beard.

In modern Western culture, Queen Hatspsut has the image of an intelligent, energetic woman endowed with analytical abilities. A place for Hatshepsut was found, for example, in the famous exhibition “The Dinner Party” by artist Judy Chicago, dedicated to the great women who influenced the history of mankind.

Pharaoh Akhenaten, who ruled in the 14th century BC. e.- another popular figure in the history of Ancient Egypt. He carried out truly revolutionary religious reforms. He decided to make the previously insignificant god Aten, associated with the solar disk, the center of the entire religion. At the same time, the cults of all other gods (including Amun-Ra) were prohibited. That is, in fact, Akhenaten decided to create a monotheistic religion.

In his transformations, Akhenaten relied on people who held high positions in the state, but came from commoners. On the other hand, most of the hereditary priestly nobility actively resisted the reforms. Ultimately, Akhenaten lost - after his death, familiar religious practices returned to the everyday life of the Egyptians. Representatives of the new XIX dynasty, which came to power ten years later, abandoned the ideas of Akhenaten, these ideas were discredited.

Pharaoh-reformer Akhenaten, who, according to many scientists, was simply ahead of his time

And a few more words should be said about Cleopatra VII, who ruled Egypt for 21 years. She was truly an extraordinary and, apparently, very attractive woman. It is known that she had an affair first with Julius Caesar, and later with Mark Antony. From the first she gave birth to a son, and from the second - two sons and daughters.

And one more interesting fact: Mark Antony and Cleopatra, when they realized that they could not resist Emperor Octavian, who was eager to capture Egypt, began to organize endless drinking bouts and festive feasts. Soon, Cleopatra announced the creation of the “Union of Suicide Bombers,” whose members (and all close associates were invited to join it) swore an oath that they would die together. During the same period, Cleopatra tested poisons on slaves, wanting to find out which of them could bring death quickly and without severe pain.

In general, in 30 BC. e. Cleopatra, like her lover Antony, committed suicide. And Octavian, having established his control over Egypt, turned it into one of the provinces of Rome.

Unique buildings on the Giza plateau

The pyramids on the Giza plateau are the only one of the so-called seven wonders of the world that has survived to this day.

Of greatest interest to Egyptologists and ordinary people is the Pyramid of Cheops. Its construction lasted about two decades and was probably completed in 2540 BC. e. For its construction, 2,300,000 volumetric stone blocks were required, their total mass was seven million tons. The height of the pyramid is now 136.5 meters. The architect of this pyramid is called Hemiun, the vizier of Cheops.

Pharaoh Cheops gained the reputation of a classical despot. Some sources report that Cheops used harsh measures to force the population to work on the construction of the pyramid. The very name of Cheops after he died was allegedly prohibited from being pronounced. And Egypt's resources were so depleted as a result of his rule that this led to the weakening of the country and the end of the Fourth Dynasty.

The second largest ancient Egyptian pyramid on the same plateau is the Pyramid of Khafre, son of Cheops. It is indeed a little smaller, but at the same time it is located on a higher hill and has a steeper slope. The Pyramid of Khafre has the shape of a regular quadrangular figure with sides of 210.5 meters. Inside there is one burial chamber with an area of ​​71 m2, which once contained the sarcophagus of the pharaoh. This chamber can be accessed through one of two tunnels.

The third pyramid is the pyramid of Pharaoh Mikerin- was erected later than the other two. Its height barely reaches 66 meters, the length of its square base is 108.4 meters, and its volume is 260 thousand cubic meters. It is known that once the lower part of the pyramid was decorated with red Aswan granite, a little higher the granite was replaced by white limestone. And finally, at the very top, red granite was used again. Unfortunately, the cladding has not been preserved; in the Middle Ages, the Mamelukes took it from here and used it for their own needs. The burial chamber in this pyramid is located at ground level.

Near the three pyramids, everyone can see Great Sphinx- a statue of a lion with a human face. The length of this statue is 72 meters and the height is 20 meters. There was once a sanctuary located between the front paws. The exact time of creation of the Sphinx is unknown - there is debate about this. Some believe that it was built by Chefren, others say that it was Jephedra, another son of Cheops. There are also versions that the Sphinx appeared much earlier, about twelve thousand years ago (allegedly the ancient Egyptians simply dug it up during the dynastic period), and very dubious versions that the Sphinx was created by aliens.

Features of society and lifestyle of the ancient Egyptians

The Egyptians believed that after death they would face the judgment of the god Osiris, who would put their good and bad deeds on different scales. And in order for good deeds to outweigh, it is necessary to behave appropriately in earthly life.

In addition, it was important for the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt that their afterlife be similar to earthly life. Therefore, it was necessary to carefully prepare for the transition to another world. A wealthy Egyptian built an afterlife house for himself in advance. When the pharaoh died, not only his body was placed in his tomb, but also many things that could be useful in another life - clothes, jewelry, furniture, etc. In this regard, the fact that the first pyramids were stepped - probably the steps were required so that the pharaoh could ascend to the world of the gods.

Egyptian society consisted of several classes and social status was of great importance here. Wealthy Egyptians had wigs and elaborate headdresses in fashion, and they got rid of their own hair. In this way the problem of lice was solved. But poor people had a hard time - among them it was not customary to cut their hair to zero.

The main clothing of the Egyptians was the usual loincloth. But rich people, as a rule, also wore shoes. And the pharaohs were accompanied everywhere by sandal bearers - there was such a special position.

Another fun fact: for a long time in Egypt, transparent dresses were popular among wealthy women. In addition, to demonstrate their social status, Egyptian women (and Egyptians too) wore necklaces, bracelets and other similar accessories.

Some professions in ancient Greek society - warrior, official, priest - were inherited. However, achieving a significant position, thanks to your talents and skills, was also quite possible.

Most able-bodied Egyptians were employed in agriculture, handicrafts, or the service sector. And at the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves. They usually played the role of servants, but at the same time they had the right to buy and sell goods and receive freedom. And having become free, they could eventually even enter the nobility. The humane treatment of slaves is also evidenced by the fact that they were entitled to medical care at the workplace.

In general, Egyptian healers were very enlightened for their time. They had an excellent understanding of the characteristics of the human body and carried out very complex operations. According to research by Egyptologists, even transplanting some organs was not a problem for local healers. It is also interesting that in Ancient Egypt, some of the infectious diseases were treated with moldy bread - this can be considered a kind of analogue of modern antibiotics.

Also, the Egyptians actually invented mummification. This process looked like this: the internal organs were removed and placed in vessels, and soda was applied to the body itself so that it did not decompose. After the body dried, its cavities were filled with flax soaked in a special balm. And finally, at the last stage, the body was bandaged and closed in a sarcophagus.

Relations between men and women in ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egypt, men and women had virtually equal legal rights. At the same time, the mother was considered the head of the family. Pedigree was strictly traced through the maternal line and land ownership also passed from mother to daughter. Of course, the husband had the right to dispose of the land while his wife was alive, but when she died, the daughter received the entire inheritance. It turns out that a marriage with the heir to the throne could well give a man the right to rule the country. This was also the reason why the pharaoh took his sisters and daughters as wives - he thus protected himself from other possible contenders for power.

Marriages in Ancient Egypt were mostly monogamous. However, a wealthy Egyptian man, along with his legal wife, could maintain a concubine. On the other hand, a woman who had more than one man could be punished.

Marriage in Ancient Egypt was not sanctified by priests, and the Egyptians did not organize lavish wedding festivities either. For the wedding to be recognized as valid, the man had to say, “I take you as my wife,” and the woman had to answer, “You take me as your wife.” It is important to add here that it was the Egyptians who were the first to wear wedding rings on the ring finger - this custom was later adopted by the Greeks and Romans.

Ancient Egyptian newlyweds also exchanged gifts among themselves. Moreover, in the event of a divorce, you could return your gift (a very good custom). And in the later periods of the history of Ancient Egypt, the conclusion of marriage contracts became a fairly common practice.

Documentary film “Ancient Egypt. The history of the creation of ancient Egyptian civilization"

The origin of the pharaohs, periods of the history of Ancient Egypt. Lists of pharaohs

Fragments of an ancient Egyptian chronicle carved on stone around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC have reached our time. e. The text of the chronicle lists Egyptian rulers. (By the way, they were not always called pharaohs. The name and title of the pharaoh were considered sacred, so they avoided naming them and clarified the name of a particular pharaoh only when it was absolutely necessary. This, of course, does not make the work of historians easier.) From the middle In the 2nd millennium, the Egyptians called their ruler “per-o” - “big house”. The later word “pharaoh” came from this definition.

Every year, entries were made into the chronicle about the reign of the king. The kings listed in the chronicle in the 4th millennium BC. e. preceded by numerous tribal leaders and kings who owned the regions of Northern and Southern Egypt. The chronicle also gives the names of the kings of the northern part of Egypt, about whom no information was preserved already in the 3rd millennium, only names and the approximate sequence of reign.

There are quite a few monuments of material culture and even written sources left about the ancient era of Egypt, but they are very brief, fragmentary, incomplete, written in a very ancient language that is difficult to decipher. For this reason, very little is known about the origins of the first Egyptian pharaohs. It would be much easier if the ancient chroniclers indicated at least the dates of birth and death of their kings, but the ancient Egyptians did not have a calendar similar to the modern one, which is why there are so many mysteries in the history of Ancient Egypt, and in Egyptology there are different chronologies.

The history of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt is so long that historians, for convenience, divided it into several periods, each of which is comparable in duration to the history of any European power.

Ancient kingdom(2707-2170 BC) - the era of the great pyramids.

Middle Kingdom(2119-1793 BC) – development of writing.

New kingdom(1550-1069 BC - the time of great architects.

Later kingdom(715-332 BC) – period of Persian rule.

After the end of each great era, there came a time of chaos, the division of Egypt into two parts. These times are characterized as Periods of Decay:

The first period of collapse (or the First Transition Period) – 2170-2019 BC. e.

Second period of collapse (or Second transition period) – 1794/93-1550 BC. e.

Third period of collapse (or Third transition period) – 1070/69-714 BC. e.

But in general, the history of the Egyptian pharaohs began in the prehistoric era, which is usually defined as the Predynastic period, followed by the time of the Early Dynasties - c. 3100-2700 BC e. (I and II dynasties - 3100-2700 BC). In those very ancient times, Egypt gradually developed its high culture. The dynasties of Ancient Egypt finally ended under the Greek pharaohs Ptolemies (332-30 BC). In 30 BC. e. Egypt became a Roman province. The famous Queen Cleopatra is considered the last ruler on the throne of the pharaohs.

The first pharaoh Aha (or Menes) reigned from approximately 3032 to 3000 BC. e. and managed to unite two parts of the country - Upper and Lower Egypt.

All eras are divided into dynasties that ruled for three thousand years - a total of 31 dynasties. All chronologies of Ancient Egypt are rather conditional, because due to the passage of time and in the absence of accurate data, historians have to use indirect indications and compare different sources. Therefore, the dates of the reign of the pharaohs are given tentatively - in different historical sources you can find data that differs by entire decades.

Lists of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt have been discovered in temples. The oldest such list dates back to the Fifth Dynasty (2498-2345 BC) - the so-called Palermo Stone. On a slab of black basalt, split into several pieces of different sizes, is carved a list of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt for six or seven centuries, starting from the prehistoric period, that is, from the end of the 4th millennium BC. One of the pieces mentions some of the last Egyptian kings of the Predynastic Period (before about 3150 BC). The list ends with Pharaoh Neferirkare, who ruled in the middle of the Fifth Dynasty. It is noteworthy that the “Palermo Stone” not only names the pharaohs, but also describes the most important events that happened during their reign.

In another list of pharaohs - from the Karnak temple - all the royal ancestors of Pharaoh Thutmose III (XVIII dynasty) are named. All that is missing are a few pharaohs from the Second Period of Decay.

The most famous list of ancient Egyptian pharaohs contains the so-called Abydos list, which is carved on the stone walls of the Temple of Seti I in Abydos. It shows Pharaoh Seti I showing his son Ramses II long rows of cartouches of 76 Egyptian kings, starting with Menes and ending with Seti I. Rulers from the Second Period of Decay, otherwise called the Second Intermediate Period, are also omitted there, as at Karnak.

The Abydos list also lacks five kings of the 18th dynasty: Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun and Aye (Queen Hatshepsut was excluded, in all likelihood, by order of Thutmose III, and the four remaining pharaohs belonged to the Amarna period and were cursed as apostates).

The Saqqara List has 47 cartouches (originally 58) and names pharaohs from Anedjib of the First Dynasty to Ramses II. There are no pharaohs of the Second Intermediate Period there either.

The most detailed list is recognized as the famous Turin Canon. Its age is, according to experts, about 1200 years. This list originally contained three hundred names of pharaohs, but the papyrus was badly damaged during transportation, and many of its fragments have not survived. This is all the more unfortunate because parts of the meticulously compiled document, where the dates of the reign were entered with an accuracy of month and day, have disappeared.

Manetho of Semennite, the only known ancient Egyptian historian, made a huge contribution to the history of Ancient Egypt. Manetho wrote the “History of Egypt,” which has come down to us in fragments, in the form of quotations in the works of other ancient historians - Josephus, Sextus Africanus, Eusebius of Caesarea and others, who used his works to supplement their own knowledge about Egypt. Manetho was in all likelihood a priest or high priest under Ptolemy I (306/304-283/282 BC). He used temple documents and archives and had greater opportunities, compared with modern historians, to become acquainted with ancient Egyptian historical sources. Manetho divided the entire history of Ancient Egypt into 30 dynasties, and this principle of division has been preserved to this day (although it is now customary to count 31 dynasties).

Some information about the Egyptian pharaohs was gleaned from the works of historians and chroniclers of other countries, for example, Greek historians of the 5th century BC. e. Herodotus and the 1st century BC. e. Diodorus, who also paid attention to historical events in such a large and important country as Egypt.

All lists indicate the sequence of reign of the pharaohs and their names. However, these lists are incomplete; as a rule, they omit the pharaohs of the transitional periods. And in the list of Manetho, as in the texts of Herodotus and Diodorus, Greek versions of the names of the pharaohs are given. Egyptian names of pharaohs can only be found in ancient Egyptian texts.

Indications of the length of the reign of the pharaohs are found on seal impressions on clay wine vessels. The age of the pharaoh can sometimes be judged by the results of research using the radiocarbon method.

The radiocarbon dating method of biological remains, objects and materials of biological origin is based on measuring the ratio of carbon isotopes in the material. Carbon is present in the earth's atmosphere in the form of stable isotopes C-12 and C-13 and the radioactive isotope C-14. Carbon is constantly exposed to cosmic radiation penetrating the atmosphere, and this produces the radioactive isotope C-14. When an organism dies and decomposes, stable isotopes are preserved, but the radioactive isotope decays with a half-life of 5568 + 30 years, so its content in the remains gradually decreases. Knowing the initial content of the isotope in the tissues and finding out how much remains, you can find out how much radioactive carbon has decayed and, in this way, determine the time that has passed since the cessation of the body’s vital activity.

The principle of radiocarbon dating was proposed by the American physicist and chemist Willard Libby back in 1946. Since then, its application in various conditions and for various organic materials has been improved to reduce the error. Currently, radiocarbon dating is considered one of the most reliable ways to determine the age of organic remains, although not all scientists accept this.

When applied to the pharaoh's mummy, radiocarbon analysis makes it possible to obtain fairly reliable data on the dates of his birth and death. If the pharaoh died very young (like Tutankhamun), experts also consider the condition of his skeleton and so-called “wisdom teeth.”

The degree of kinship between the ancient Egyptian pharaohs is difficult to establish. Genetic analysis of mummies is rarely carried out, and in those cases when it was carried out, the results were positive - the pharaohs and their spouses were related by blood. But genetic research is complicated by the fact that, for better preservation, the mummies were irradiated with gamma rays, and this irradiation affected the results. A genetic study of the bone marrow and dental tissue of some mummies has been successfully carried out. But the complexity of the analysis and questionable results are likely to dampen the ardor of researchers.

The lists of pharaohs indicate the sequence, but not the reign dates and years of life of each individual pharaoh. Since Ancient Egypt did not have precise chronology, more or less accurate dating always created great difficulties. It is not surprising that the data that can be found in the works of Egyptologists differ greatly, sometimes by a hundred years. The latest dating is based on modern research, but novelty is not a guarantee of accuracy.

It is somewhat easier to imagine what the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt looked like, because numerous images have been preserved, including signed ones. Even if we take into account that there might have been no portrait resemblance at all, that the author painted an ideal image of the divine ruler of Egypt, he was still based on the real features of his contemporaries, although he embellished them. Whether the artist saw, at least from a distance, his royal model is unknown. The authors of the images of the pharaohs were probably guided, like icon painters, by the established canons, but it is not at all excluded that these canons may have involved the introduction of some individual features. There is a certain similarity in the faces of all pharaohs, but differences are still visible, so we can assume the presence of portrait similarities with specific pharaohs.

The appearance of the pharaohs has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years. Due to the hot climate, they sometimes wore no other clothing except an apron-like loincloth made of thin linen, tied at the waist with a belt. On special occasions, animal tails were attached to this belt - a custom that probably remained from the times when the rulers of Egypt were tribal leaders and the main hunters of the tribe. Tribes who earned their living by hunting had a custom of wearing animal skins during rituals or wearing fangs, tails or other parts of the bodies of killed animals. Sometimes during rituals, pharaohs, also according to a long tradition, wore a fur cape or a whole panther skin on their shoulders. In later centuries, instead of a loincloth, the pharaohs wore tunics made of the finest linen. The chest was completely covered by wide, massive gold necklaces with precious stones and pearls. On special occasions, the royal person was decorated with gold buckles, necklaces, tiaras, hairpins, pendants, and all this splendor weighed more than one kilogram.

The pharaoh was supposed to wear a crown or scarf on his head. Sometimes in everyday life the pharaohs limited themselves to only a scarf or a wig. The head was usually shaved, and there were many wigs - everyday and formal, curled in different ways or braided. Over a scarf or wig, the pharaohs wore a uraeus - a golden diadem in the shape of a cobra preparing to attack.

There was not one crown, but several different ones: hedjet - the crown of Upper Egypt in the form of a tall white cap, reminiscent of a pin; deshret - the red crown of Lower Egypt, cylindrical in front with a long protrusion at the back; pschent – ​​double combined crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. For ritual purposes, the pharaohs wore the atef crown - a skillfully made reed cap, sometimes equipped with horns. The pharaohs of the 18th dynasty began to wear a blue round crown in the form of a helmet.

The striped scarf of the Nemes pharaohs was tied on the head, almost covering the forehead, two ends were connected at the back, the other two were freely and symmetrically extended over the shoulders and chest. There was also a simpler version of tying a klaft scarf, in which the ends were tied at the back of the head or fastened with gold hairpins and released onto the back. On the crowns and scarves of the pharaoh there was always a uraeus above the forehead - an image of a cobra, which was a sign of the power of the rulers of Egypt. The snake was always presented unfurled, ready to attack, with its head raised, which was supposed to indicate readiness to fight against the forces of evil.

The pharaoh probably could not dress himself, put on his headdresses correctly, and he needed servants for his ceremonial vestments.

A typical detail of the pharaoh's appearance was an extended beard. Pharaohs, like ordinary Egyptians, shaved their mustaches and beards. An artificial beard, carefully curled or braided, laid in a trapezoid shape or completely straight, was attached to the chin with ribbons tied to the wig. Egyptian gods were depicted with beards, which means that the pharaoh should have the same one to emphasize his divinity.

In Ancient Egypt there was a custom of lining the eyes and applying makeup to the face. Decorative cosmetics were applied generously. In the tombs of the pharaohs, archaeologists found a large number of boxes, vials and bowls with a whole supply of various ointments, paints, whitewash, and aromatic substances. Some drugs must have had a healing effect. In all images of pharaohs, their eyes are brightly outlined and painted on with black paint. This may be due to the belief that black paint protected against eye diseases, which were widespread, or warded off evil spirits.

Pharaohs are often depicted with a scepter and whip crossed on their chest. Perhaps these royal regalia were inherited by the pharaohs from their distant predecessors, tribal leaders. For the leader of a tribe of cattle breeders, a staff and a whip were common attributes and signs of power. The pharaoh's scepter must have symbolized the shepherd's crook and the duty of the pharaohs to take care of their people, to guard them as a shepherd guards his flock, to protect them from enemies, beating them with a powerful hand, armed with a whip, a symbol of weapons. The mysterious whip at the same time strongly resembles a fan from flies - a necessary item in everyday life. The scepters could have different shapes - for example, with the head of the god Set, which symbolized the power and might of the pharaoh.

God Set reigned in the desert and, according to scientists, the prototype of his head was the head of the desert shrew, which is still found in savannas and semi-deserts from Morocco to western Libya.

As for shoes, in Ancient Egypt almost everyone walked barefoot, not excluding the nobility and even the pharaoh himself. The pharaoh wore sandals made of papyrus or leather only for ceremonial exits outside the palace, and in his chambers, in all likelihood, he walked barefoot on smooth stone slabs. Ordinary people did not have the right to wear the same shoes as rulers and dignitaries, and they did not need them. In order to protect their feet from hot, sharp stones and sand in the heat of work, they sometimes tied soles of hard leather or woven straw to their feet with belts, but, as a rule, the Egyptians walked on the ground barefoot.

Chapter 4. The era of the second half of the XIV – XVI centuries of the new era in the history of “ancient” Egypt. Ataman - Otoman Empire 1. General overview of the history of the 18th “ancient” Egyptian dynasty. Egyptologists date the famous 18th dynasty to the period 1570-1342 BC. , p.254. According to our