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The summary on this topic is intended for use by teachers of Russian language and literature in grade 11 (profile level of education) according to the program edited by V.V. Babaytseva.

The content of the development of Russian language lessons for the section “Morphemics and word formation” implements a currently relevant student-oriented and communicative-cognitive approach to learning, which is expressed in establishing the relationship between the process of learning and the process of using the language. The lessons represent the unity of the process of mastering the fundamentals of linguistics, the process of developing the skills of normative, expedient, appropriate use of linguistic means in a variety of communication conditions.

In philological classes, language and linguistic (linguistics), communicative and cultural competencies are developed and improved.

In this regard, the program provides for deepening knowledge about linguistics as a science; language as a multifunctional developing system; relationships between basic units and levels of language; language norm, its functions; functional-stylistic system of the Russian language; norms of speech behavior in various spheres and communication situations, therefore, the teacher’s explanation of theoretical material is based on the university program for studying the Russian language for philological faculties.

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Lesson summary on the topic “Morphemics and word formation”

11th grade (professional level)

teacher of Russian language and literature of the highest category, Municipal Educational Institution Secondary School No. 101, Dzerzhinsky District, Volgograd

Topic: Root and affix morphemes, inflectional and

Word-forming.

Lesson type: review-summarizing

The purpose of the lesson: know the basic concepts of the topic; be able to work with text; express your thoughts correctly orally and in writing

During the classes

1. Work on the topic of the lesson:

A) Write down the text from dictation.

Do you know, for example, what a pleasure it is to leave before dawn? You go out onto the porch. The stars are blinking in the dark gray sky, the damp breeze is swaying the dark branches of the trees: the restrained, unclear whisper of the night can be heard. They put a homespun carpet on the cart and put a box with a samovar at its feet. Behind wicker fence a hundred faces are snoring peacefully; every sound seems to hang in frozen air.

B) Explain the punctuation marks in the text.

C) Write out 2-3 examples of spellings in different morphemes from the dictation.

For correct spelling These words you need to be able to highlight significant parts of the word.

What branch of the science of language studies the composition of words?

What is a morpheme? What morphemes do you know? What do they mean?

Students give definitions of root, prefix, suffix, ending (new synonymous names of morphemes are introduced.)

The root is the main and obligatory part of the word, expressing its lexical meaning

The ending (or inflection) is a service morpheme that forms grammatical forms and expresses the grammatical meanings of words. A prefix (or prefix) is an auxiliary morpheme that is located before the root and expresses word-formation and/or grammatical meaning.

A suffix is ​​a service morpheme that is found after the root and expresses word-forming and/or grammatical meaning

2. The teacher's word. Introduction of new concepts on the topic:

A morpheme is the minimal significant part of a word that has the properties of reproducibility and repeatability. For example, the word mountains is divided into two significant parts. Morpheme mountains expresses the lexical meaning of the word - “a significant elevation rising above the surrounding area”, and the morpheme-s - grammatical meaning of the nominative (or accusative) plural case.

The most important feature of a morpheme is its reproducibility.

Unlike the reproduction of a word, the reproduction of a morpheme is of a connected nature. The word is reproduced freely, that is, its reproduction does not necessarily cause the reproduction of other units, while the reproduction of a morpheme is possible only as part of a word, in combination with other morphemes that together make up the word.

One of the characteristics of a morpheme is often its repetition. Indeed, repetition is a characteristic property of a morpheme. Most morphemes are used in a number of words (occurring at least in two words), and are repeated in them with the same meaning, cf.:cutter, pointer, stacker- morpheme -chik in all words denotes a person by action;re-sow, re-teach, re-educate- morpheme re- means “again (repeatedly), otherwise perform an action”;window, glass, business- morpheme -y expresses the meaning of the dative case singular. But this feature does not cover all morphemes.

The term “morpheme” was introduced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay as common name all parts of the word. He wrote: “Morphema is a further indivisible and indecomposable morphological element of linguistic thinking. This term is generic, uniting for particular, specific concepts like root, prefix, suffix, ending, etc. Considering such a term superfluous is the same as considering the unifying term “tree” superfluous and being content with the private names “oak” ", "birch", "spruce", "willow", etc." "

Root morphemes include only roots. Affixal (functional) morphemes include suffixes, prefixes, postfixes, and endings. Intermediate morphemes between root and affixal ones are affixoids.

The root morpheme is the semantic core, the bearer of the lexical meaning of the word. Affixal morphemes express additional (auxiliary) meanings - word-formative or grammatical, which are layered on the semantics of the root morpheme, modifying or specifying it in some respect, cf.: write and write down, write down, write down, write down, write down, describe and etc.

The root is an obligatory part of the word and acts as its semantic and structural organizing center. Affixes are attached to the root, as if they are strung on it in a certain sequence, cf.: world - peace-i(t) - reconcile(it) - reconciliation(s) - - conciliatory)- conciliatory,

Root morphemes most often found in combination with affixes, but in the Russian language there are root words without affixes. As for affixes, they are used only as part of a word.

Affixes differ from each other in their place in a word. In relation to the root, prefixes (prefixes) and suffixes are distinguished. Affixes located before the root are called prefixes:very cute, not big.Affixes located after the root are called suffixes:connection, joy.In relation to the end of the word, endings are highlighted, although they are not always located at the absolute end of the word. Affixes that come after the ending are called postfixes. Some scholars call them postflexional suffixes. Postfixes are service morphemes that are found after the ending and express grammatical and/or word-formation meaning.

Depending on what function in a word perform service morphemes, distinguish:

1. Word-formingaffixes that form new words: city ​​- city + sk (oh), at + city.

These affixes have a specific word-formation meaning. Yes, suffix-sk- in an adjective urban means “pertaining to or characteristic of that which is called by the generative word.” Console at- in a noun suburb means "close to the city."

2. Form-buildingaffixes that form different grammatical forms of the same word. Thus, the present tense forms of the verb are formed using personal endings: run - run, run-ish, run-it, run-im, run, run.

(Theory from teaching aid for pedagogical institutes edited by N. M. Shansky “Modern Russian literary language» pp. 179-180, 181-195)

3. Workshop.

Students complete tasks and comment as they complete them, working in groups:

A) Divide words into morphemes; name the morphemes of each word. 1 group

Clean, purity, cleaner, cleaner, clean, cleaner, clean, cleansing, cleaned, cleaned, cleaning, you clean, clean, clean, clean, clean, clear, clear, clean, cleaning, cleaner, cleans, clean, clean, clean , cleansed, cleansing, cleaned, cleaned, cleaned, purgatory, cleansed.

B) Select affixes in pairs of words and determine their functions Group 2

(word-forming, form-forming, word-forming).

1. Prefixes: interrupt - good, limit,
   wise, barrier - very pretty, legend,
   pretty; divide - kind, cheer up,
   merry; write down - moan, give - float, put - fly;
   hand over - reset; lower - run around; press down - sit down, sink (furnace) - sink (ship).

3 group

2. Suffixes: gingerbread - tail, old man - bow; blacken - blacken, weaken - weaken, jump - dry, whistle - get wet; skating rink - knot; night - line, cloud - point, voice - lair, friend - conflagration
(place of fire); fly - fly, roll - roll, run - run, admit - admit, order - order; pen (child) - pen (fountain pen), leg
(child) - leg (of a chair); hanging - hanging, standing - standing; Lezginka - straw.

3. Endings: head - head, blue (sky) - (still) blue (heaven) -;
(become) blue; (big) village - (sun) village; my - we carry - during the day (adverb); words - again; around (adverb) - around, then (adverb) - then; at the door - inside.

Each group explains how they solved the linguistic problem.

4 Summing up the lesson:

1. What does morphemics study?

2. What morphemes do you know? What do they mean?

3. What new terms did you learn in class?

Homework:

V.V. Babaytseva “Russian language” 10-11 grades “Bustard” 2006. Textbook for educational institutions philological profile. Page 277 exercise 279 Identify morphemes in words. What part of speech do these words belong to?

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics in which the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms are studied.

The basic unit of morphemics is the morpheme. Morpheme– this is the minimum significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning.

For example: Return

WHO has the meaning of “reverse action” or “direction of movement.” Action is usually directed towards a subject or object.

ROTATION- Roundabout Circulation

ENIj- a process that is conceptually imaginable

E– average, singular, im.p.

Just like a phoneme, a morpheme is structural element words. Since the morpheme is a linguistic unit, we observe in it the same systemic features as in the phoneme. A morpheme is an invariant (sample, standard), and variants of a morpheme are called morphs.

For example: FRIEND – FRIEND, FRIEND’, FRIEND, DRU[K], DRU[SH]

Morphs of one morpheme in relation to each other are called allomorphs. Even if the morpheme is equal in structure to the phoneme, e.g. O, S, K, it still matters.

The morpheme differs from units of all other language levels: from sounds a morpheme differs in what it has meaning; from words- the fact that it is not a grammatically formed unit of name; from offers- the fact that it is not a communicative unit.

A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are “ building material» for suggestions.

Morpheme and word

General: presence of meaning, reproducibility, impenetrability, consistency of sound and meaning. Both words and morphemes are made up of phonemes.

Features:

Classification of morphemes in the Russian language

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root (affixal). Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and formative (ending and formative suffix).

Root morphemes

Root morphemes include ROOT, AFFIXOID.

Root – a common part related words, which express the main real meaning of the stem.

The root is the only required part of the word. There are no words without roots, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes (table) and without endings (kangaroo).

The definition of a root as “the common part of related words” is correct, but is not an exhaustive characteristic, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur only in one word, for example: cockatoo, Very, Alas, many proper nouns naming place names.

Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it “expresses the basic lexical meaning of the word.” For most words this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik ‘small table’. However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any specific morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee the main component of lexical meaning is ‘ children's party’ - not expressed by any of the morphemes.

There are many words consisting only of roots. These are function words ( But, above, If), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and immutable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part, good, go.

The root stood out when comparing words from one word-formation nest.

At the root, historical alternations are most often observed.

There are 2 types of roots: free and connected.

Free root- this is a root that is capable of appearing without affixes as part of indivisible stems (occurring without prefixes and suffixes).

For example, WATER, WATER– free root

Associated root known only as part of articulated stems and cannot be used without affixes.

For example, RAG, RAG, RAG, RAG

Affixoid– a morpheme of a transitional type between the root itself and the affix. On the one hand, the affixoid carries the same real meaning as the root, on the other hand, the affixoid creates a word-formation model as an affix, i.e. being a serial element, creates a series.

For example, GARDENER, POULTRY GROWER, FLORIST

-WOD- affixoid “one who is engaged in the destruction of something, someone”

Affixoids are divided into prefixoids (before the root) and suffixoids (after the root), depending on their location.

Affixal morphemes

– morphemes that create word-formation models and clarify and complement the meaning of the root. Affixal morphemes are common to a number of non-uniform words.

For example, URALIAN, LENINGRADIAN, AMERICAN –"resident of some locality" - EC-

Affixes include: PREFIX (), SUFFIX (), INTERFIX (), ENDING (FLEXION), POSTFIX ().

Affixes do either derivational (word-forming) function: morphemes are used to create new words; or relational (formative) function: morphemes do not create new words, but create a form of the same word.

For example, TEACHER– 4 affixal morphemes

AND, TEL- word formation f-ya

A- shape. f-ya

SIC is a word image. f-i + shape. f-ya

However, there are morphemes that perform both functions simultaneously. They called syncretic.

Affixes can be productive or unproductive.

Productive are called affixes, which are used in modern times. stage of language development to create new words or forms of one word: XERO COPY– productive.

Unproductive affixes - affixes that are not currently used to create present. words: back street, simplicity, warmth– unproductive

Affixes can be regular or irregular. Regular - often found (-n-, -k-), irregular - rarely found in words (-them-).

There are suffixes that occur in 1-2 words: POSTAMPT, glassware, applause.

Like words, morphemes can be native Russian or borrowed.

For example, eccentric, fishAK (-ak-); pie, man (-ok-)- native Russians

TRANS-, DEZ-, A-, SUPER-; -IROVA-, -FITSIROVA-, -IZM- borrowed

Suffix -

An affixal morpheme, which comes after the root and serves to form new words and grammatical forms.

SEA + -SK- →SEA – word image. suffix

SON - sons- grammatical form

PAINT – paint- shape. suffix

A word can have several suffixes, but word-forming ones, i.e. the one that creates a given word will always be the last suffix.

For example, TEACHER ← TEACHER (TEACH + -TEL-) + SK

Suffixes can have different structures. They can be simple: -IST-, -IZM-, -I-, -TEL-, -SK-, or they can be complex (composite): -NICHA-, -FITSIROVA(T)-

Suffixes can be materially expressed or null.

For example, withered, withered, withered, withered

Prefix (prefix) –

An affixal morpheme stands before the root and serves to form new words or forms of the same word.

For example, LISTEN←listen– word-forming

write→Write– formative

Prefixes cannot create words from other parts of speech. There is no such thing as a zero prefix; it is always expressed materially (unlike suffixes and endings)

Prefixes: simple (o-, na-, pro-, for-); complex (without-, under-); originally Russian and borrowed

Interfix

In derived words there is a morpheme that does not quite correspond to the characteristics of a given unit of language, since it has neither lexical nor grammatical meaning, but is used to create new words or forms of one word.

Not all scientists recognize the interfix as a morpheme, and call this formant a morpheme spacer.

Interfix can connect the bases into difficult words: esophagus, torn head.

Interfixes include frozen endings inside complex derived stems: crazy.

There is no need to confuse interfixes and suffixes within complex words. Wed: evergreen(suffix) , fruitVegetable(interfix).

An interfix can combine a root and a suffix: Yalta + -ets- + IN →Yalta

Inflection (ending)–

Meaningful morpheme in inflected words.

The ending always indicates the possibility of replacing a given morpheme with another sound complex. The list of possible changes is determined by the part of speech.

For example, winter, winters, winters, winters, winters, winters, winters, winters, winters, winters, winters, winters – 12 paradigms; bookish - 24 paradigms.

The whole list of grams. forms of one word are called the paradigm of this word, and the paradigm is formed by changing endings.

Remains unresolved. the question is whether the ending is only a form-building morpheme, or whether it can be recognized that it is also a word-forming morpheme.

Postfix –

An affixal morpheme, which comes after inflection and is used to create new words or forms of one word. Postfix is ​​observed in intermittent stems.

For example, spinning – derivational

SYA is a form image. in forms they suffer. collateral in suffer. designs.

Wed: The crane lifts the load. The load is lifted by a crane.

-SO, -EITHER, -SOMETHING, creating indefinite pronouns are postfixes.

The formative morpheme is THOSE in the forms of the imperative mood of verbs and has a grammatical multiplier value numbers: walk

Not everyone clearly evaluates this morpheme: some think THOSE postfix, because this morpheme comes after another formative morpheme AND; others believe it is a suffix.

The base of the word is

this is the part of the word that precedes the ending and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. The bases of mutable and unchangeable words are different. In inflected (inflected or conjugated) words, the stem is defined as part of a word without an ending or formative suffixes : windows O, sad ny, drove Xia. To highlight the stem of a word, it is necessary to discard the ending and formative suffixes. The stem of immutable words is equal to the word: sad , In my , khaki .

Many words in the Russian language are primary in nature, that is, they are not formed from any other words. The stem of such words is called non-derivative, for example: grey, black, forest, water, grass. A non-derivative stem is always indivisible, that is, it cannot be divided into morphemes; it consists only of the root. Various word-forming affixes (prefixes,

suffixes, interfixes, postfixes), as a result of which new words with a derived base appear, for example: mountain-a - mountain-y - mountain-o-ski; brother - brother-sk-y - brotherly. Thus, derivative base- this is the basis of words formed from any other words by adding various morphemes.

In addition to the root, the derivative base may contain:

1) one or more suffixes ( masculine, masculine, masculine);

2) only prefixes ( for-husband, not-friend, great-grandson);

3) various combinations prefixes and suffixes ( like a man, like a man, like a man).

The derivative stem is segmental, that is, in addition to the root, other morphemes are distinguished in it; the derived base can be continuous ( fish, table, dream) and intermittent ( I'm meeting, I'm getting carried away).

Each derived base has its own producing base. The productive stem is the stem of the word from which the word is derived. For example: water -> water-yang-oh - watery - watery.

4) a combination of prefixes, suffixes and postfixes ( for-doh-well-t-sya, oh-dum-a-lice).

Those word-forming affixes with the help of which the given word is produced are added to the generating stem.

As a result, various word-formation chains arise, based on a word with a non-derivative stem. All words included in the chain are words of the same root (related).

22. Word formation. Derived word. Methods of word formation in modern Russian.

Word formation is a branch of linguistics that studies the ways of forming words in a language.

Word formation studies the structure of a word (what parts it consists of, what the meaning of these parts is, what position they occupy in the word) and methods of word formation.

Word formation is related with lexicology, since newly formed words replenish the vocabulary of the language and new words are formed on the basis of words already existing in the language according to the models of the given language.

Word formation is also related with morphology, since again formed word formatted according to the grammatical laws of the given language.

Word formation connection with syntax manifests itself in the fact that syntactic transformations are determined by the word-formation potential of the word.

New words appeared in 2 types of word formation:

1. morphological; 2. non-morphological.

In morphological word formation a new word is created by adding/truncating morphemes, i.e. some operation is performed with the morpheme. These include private methods of addition and affixation.

Non-morphological methods– methods where the formation of a new word is associated with changes in its semantics. No new morphemes are added, and sometimes the stem structure does not even change.

Non-morphological methods of word formation include:

Lexico-semantic method

Lexico-grammatical method (morphological-syntactic)

Lexico-syntactic method

Non-morphological types of word formation

Lexico-semantic

A new word appeared as a result of semantic changes in a word that had already changed in the language. Those. Initially, polysemy (polysemy) developed and a new meaning breaks away, turning into a homonym.

For example, pioneer (discoverer) → pioneer (member of a children's organization); plant (enterprise) → factory (to start); scapula (tool) → scapula (bone)

The morphemic structure has not changed, the part of the word has not changed, the semantics have changed!!!

In this chapter:

§1. Morpheme

Morpheme is the minimum meaningful part of a word. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts. Words are built from morphemes, the meanings of morphemes are components general meaning words.

Morphemes are divided into word-forming and inflectional (formative).

Derivative morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word.

Inflectional (formative) morphemes are needed to form the forms of inflected words and express the grammatical meaning of words.

§2. Types of word-forming morphemes

Derivational morphemes include root, prefix, suffix and interfix.

Root- the main morpheme, common to related words and expressing the main lexical meaning of the word.

Remember:

Words without a root are impossible in the Russian language.

In words house, house ik, looking for a home, ova's house, house earpiece, house keeping, house sharpness there is a root house. In the examples of compound words given, this is the first of two roots. As can be seen from the example, there can be several roots in a word.

In the Russian language there are words consisting only of roots. These are, first of all, service words: prepositions: By, To, above, unions: And, But, If, interjections: Oh, Oh, Hello, some adverbs: Very, there, as well as unchangeable nouns: coffee, metro and adjectives: beige, khaki

Console is a morpheme that occupies a position in a word before the root, for example with run, when going, rethink. There can be several prefixes, like roots, in a word: demon with mental, demon is powerful.

Remember:

A word cannot consist only of a prefix.

Suffix- a morpheme that occupies a position after the root in a word, for example human n y, shore oh oh. Many Russian words have not one, but several suffixes: nasil stvenn about, America an from irova nn y.

Remember:

A word cannot consist only of a suffix.

There are several special features in the system of morphemes interfix.
Interfixes in the Russian language include letters O And e as connecting vowels in complex words. Interfixes participate in word formation, but do not add their meaning: heat O move, steam O WHO, myself O var.

§3. Types of formative morphemes

Formative morphemes include, first of all, endings and suffixes.

Ending is a morpheme that serves to change a word, form its forms and express meanings: number, gender, case, person. Endings are needed to connect words in a sentence.
Only inflected words have endings. Examples:

Listening yu, listening, listening, listening, listening, listening

Ch. present tense 1st sp., forms 1st, 2nd and 3rd person units. and plural h.

dacha a, dacha, dacha, dacha, dacha, about dacha

noun 1st class, female, units. h., name, gen., dat., wine., tv., p. pad.

Zero ending
The ending may be zero, i.e. not expressed, not represented, but such an ending also carries information about the grammatical meaning.
Example: table - zero ending (noun m.r., 2nd sc., im.=win.fall), read - zero ending (ch. past tense, m.r., plural) .

Remember:

These words and these forms have zero endings:

• for nouns of the 2nd and 3rd classes. in the form of I.p. and V.p. in units, if their shapes coincide, as in inanimate nouns: house, horse, mother, night
• for nouns of all declensions in the form R.p. in plural: cars, windows, soldiers, armies
• at short adjectives in unit form m.r.: healthy, glad, happy
• for verbs in the indicative mood, past. time, unit, m.r.: read, wrote, considered
• for verbs in the form of the conditional mood, singular, m.r.: would read, write, count would
• for verbs in the imperative mood singular: write, read, count
• in short passive participles in unit form m.r.: written, read

Do not confuse:

Zero ending and no ending for unchangeable words. This is a serious mistake common during analysis.

Formative suffixes- these are morphemes that appear in a word after the root and serve to form the forms of the word. Examples: suffix indeterminate form verb -th, -ty: chita t, going you, past tense suffix -l: go l, imperative -And: review And, degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs -e:shish e.

We discuss the problem of interpretation.

Formative suffixes or endings?

Some authors consider formative suffixes as endings. Their logic is as follows: if a morpheme is used to form new words, it is a suffix, and if with the help of a morpheme different forms of the same word are formed, then these are endings. By this logic, it turns out that the past tense indicator -l is an ending, and so is the infinitive indicator. After all be in love And I loved- this is the same word, only its forms are different.

I recommend that children not be surprised when they encounter a new interpretation. There is nothing to be done; there are issues on which researchers have not yet come to an agreement. The main thing is to be consistent and always comment on controversial phenomena in the same way.

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. What is the minimum significant part of a word?

   • Morpheme

2. Is the meaning of a morpheme a component of the overall meaning of a word?

3. What morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word?

   • Derivational
   • Formative (inflectional)

4. What morpheme is common to related words and expresses the main lexical meaning of the word?

   • Root
   • Console
   • Suffix

5. Can a word consist only of a prefix?

6. Can a word consist of only a suffix?

7. What morpheme is used to express meanings of person, gender, number, case?

   • Suffix
   • Ending

8. Why are interfixes needed?

   • For word formation
   • To pass a new value
   • For shaping

9. What morpheme is used to connect words in a sentence?

   • Root
   • Suffix
   • Ending

10. Do verbs have an ending in the masculine singular form?

Right answers:

1. Morpheme
2. Derivational
3. Root
4. Ending
5. For word formation
6. Ending

In contact with

Classification of morphemes in the Russian language

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root. Non-root (affixal) morphemes are divided into word-forming ones word-forming (derivative)(prefix and word-forming suffix) and formative inflectional(ending and formative suffix).

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that the root

The only required part of the word. There are no words without roots, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes (table) and without endings (kangaroo). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, without being combined with other roots.

§ 8. CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHEMS OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

The entire set of morphemes in the Russian language can be divided into for various reasons for several classes. The classification of morphemes takes into account the following features: the role of morphemes in a word, their meaning, place in the word, origin.

Roots and affixes

There are root (roots) and affixal morphemes. The basis for such division is the role of these morphemes in the composition of the word: root morphemes are an obligatory part of the word, there are no words without a root. Affixal morphemes are an optional part of a word.

There are words without affixal morphemes: me, you, here, yesterday, there. Roots are morphemes that can be used in speech independently or accompanied by one of the types of affixes - inflections. Some affixal morphs are homonymous to the root morphs of function words: prefix without- and preposition without, console from- and preposition from, prefix s- and preposition s, etc. Affixal morphemes are sometimes used independently: Use less isms(From colloquial speech); None"pseudo" there should be no place in art(From newspapers). In these contexts, affixes cease to be affixes, they turn into roots and are used as nouns.

However, being capable of expressing the same meanings, roots and affixes differ in the way they are expressed: roots express meaning independently, affixes only in combination with roots. Related to this is another important difference between roots and affixes. Roots can be singular, occurring only in one word, but affixes are not singular. (For unique parts of words like -ov (love), -unok (picture), see Chapter 2.) Affixes, entering a word, relate words to some variety, some class of objects, features, processes. What is signified for them? That which is general is abstracted from the meaning of a number of words that include these elements. Therefore, their specificity as building elements of a word is that they are necessarily repeated in a number of words. This important property of affixes as formal accessories of a word was noted in late XIX- early 20th century famous Russian linguist F. F. Fortunatov.

So, the fundamental difference between affixal and root morphemes is the obligatory repetition of affixes in words that are similarly constructed and have a common element of meaning and the indifference to this property of roots. In other words, there are roots that are repeated in many words, and roots that appear in only one word (cockatoo, I, Frau, etc.), but there are not and cannot be affixes that appear in only one word. Single roots are rare. These are words that do not give derivatives, so-called words without relatives.

Types of affixes

Among affix morphemes according to their function in language and the nature of meaning, two are distinguished large class: word-forming (derivative) and inflectional morphemes. In this section we consider word-forming affixes; about inflectional affixes and their difference from derivational affixes, see Chapter. 7, as well as in the “Morphology” section.

Derivational morphemes in Russian can be located:

1) in front of the root; then they are called prefixes (or prefixes).

A prefix is ​​a word-forming morpheme placed before a root or other prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, primorye, somewhere, re-o-det).

2) after the root; then they are called suffixes. A suffix is ​​a word-forming morpheme that comes after the root (table-ik, red-e-t).

For example: 1) fly, beauty, ultra-radical, pre-cute, anti-tuberculosis, supersonic, anti-war;

2) artist-k(a), newspaper-chick, magazine-ist, cement-n(y).

Suffixes are usually placed before inflections. In the Russian language there is only one suffix -sya, which is located after the inflections: look-sya, run-sya. (postfix)

The term “prefix” has two meanings - wide and narrow: a) affixal morpheme, located in front of the root, to the left of the root (opposite to postfixes); b) one type of derivational morphemes (prefix), opposed to another type of derivational morphemes (suffixes).

Some scientists (V.M. Markov, P.P. Shuba, etc.) identify another type of derivational morphemes in the Russian language - confixes, which consist of two parts (prefixal and postfixal) and act in a complex manner in the word formation act, like something unified. For example: scream - shout (there are no verbs “raskri-chat” or “shout”), talk - come to an agreement, call - get on the phone, etc. In these words, the two elements ras- and -sya, s-/so- and -sya act as a single word-formation device; Wed also: table mate, companion, loam, stepson.

Isolating confixes as special morphemes when studying the structure of a Russian word is inappropriate. The presence of intermittent morphemes is not typical for the structure of the Russian language. In addition, the postfixal parts of confixes coincide, as a rule, in meaning with the corresponding prefixes and suffixes, i.e. co-, included in the confix co---nik (for example, companion, companion), is identical in meaning to the prefix co- (cf. . co-author); -nik, included in the same confix, is identical in meaning to the suffix -nik (cf.: shkol-nik, dictionary-nik). This method of word formation is called prefix-suffixal (see about this in Chapter/4). The name of this method of word formation as confixation, and the corresponding morphemes as confixes, does not deepen our understanding of this phenomenon, but only replaces some terms with others.

Synonymous and homonymous morphemes

The concepts of “synonym” and “homonym”, which are used in vocabulary, are also applicable to morphemes as units of language that have both meaning and form. Examples of synonymous morphemes can be the prefixes super- and super-, denoting “high degree” (super-fashionable, super-fashionable), the suffixes -ikh(a) and -its(a), denoting female animals (she-wolf and elephant), suffixes -ш(а ) and -k(a), denoting women (conductor and artist). Homonymous are those affixes whose meanings do not have common semantic components. Thus, in the Russian language there are several homonymous suffixes of nouns -к(а). They have the following meanings: 1) “feminine (Romanian, Muscovite); 2) “abstract action” (disassembly, reprint); 3) “diminutive” (head, leg).

There are homonymous suffixes that are added to words different parts speech. These are, for example, the person suffix of nouns -ist (guitar-ist) and the suffix of adjectives -ist(y) (forest-ist-y, swamp-ist-y, mountain-ist-y). The units -ist and -ist- are not one morpheme, since their meaning is different.

Original and borrowed morphemes

In the diachronic study of word formation from the point of view of origin, a distinction is made between native and borrowed morphemes that came into the Russian language as part of certain words. This opposition applies to both root and affixal morphemes, the latter primarily to derivational ones. In the Russian language, borrowings among inflectional morphemes are extremely rare.

Taking into account the origin of morphemes, we can summarize the structure of a Russian derivative word as follows: 1) Rk + Ra; 2) Rk + Ia; 3) Ik + Ia; 4) Ik + Ra; where R is a Russian morpheme, I is a foreign morpheme, k is a root morpheme, and a is an affixal one.

Examples: 1) knife-ik, white-from-a, you-black-it, re-white-and-t, dirty; 2) arch-stupid, anti-war, ultra-left, ultrasound, counter-strike, icon-ist, sound-fiction, tail-ist, page; 3) journal-ist, diploma-ant, anti-liberal; 4) newspaperman, coat-ets-o.

Features of suffixes and prefixes

The main types of word-forming morphemes in the Russian language, as already mentioned, are suffixes and prefixes (prefixes). The difference between them was not limited to the difference in their place in the composition of the word. External structural features underlie a number of specific features of suffixes and prefixes.

1. In the Russian language, the grammatical properties of a word are usually expressed by morphemes placed at the end of the word - inflections. Being next to an inflection, a suffix is ​​often fused with it, so an indication of a suffix must necessarily include an indication of the system of inflections inherent in the forms of a particular word.

Thus, words with the suffix -awn and zero inflection in the nominative singular form are feminine nouns of the 3rd declension.

In the same way, verbal suffixes form verbs that have certain grammatical properties. The suffix -e- forms only intransitive verbs from adjectives (white-e-t, sin-e-t, old-e-t, young-e-t), and the suffix -i- - transitive (bel-i-t , sin-i-t, old-i-t, young-i-t). Wed: The forest is turning blue on the horizon and This linen does not need to be turned blue; Semyonov is visibly aging and this hat is aging him.

Prefixes are more autonomous and free: they are independent of the influence of inflections and do not carry information about the grammatical properties of the word.

2. The addition of a prefix does not change the belonging of a word to a part of speech, but the addition of a suffix can leave the word within the same part of speech (luna - - lun-atik, house - - house-ik, drum - - drum-shchik), and translate the derivative word into another part of speech (yellow - yellow-ok, yellow-it, run - beg-un).

3. In the Russian language there are no suffixes that would produce words of different parts of speech: -liv(y) - a suffix that produces only adjectives (silent, patient, happy), -ets only nouns (fool, cunning, creator). Of course, in derivative nouns of the type taciturnity there is a suffix -liv-, but it is part of the productive stem (silent-y) and does not serve to form nouns.

Prefixes do not necessarily have a close connection with the words of any one part of speech. There are prefixes that can be added to words various parts speech, maintaining the same “universal” meaning:

times-: times-bumpy, times-fun; race-beauty;

pre-: pre-cheerful, pre-cute; pre-comedy;

4. Suffixes and prefixes differ in the nature of the meanings they express. Attaching a prefix to a word usually does not fundamentally change the meaning of the word, but only adds some shade of meaning to it. Thus, verbs with the prefixes fly away, fly in, fly off, fly out, fly up denote the same actions as the verb fly. The prefix only adds to their meaning an indication of the direction of movement.

Verbs die down,bloom denote the same action as verbs rattle,blossom, the prefix only adds to their meaning an indication of termination.

Most of the prefixes in the Russian language have meanings similar to those discussed. Therefore, prefixes are attached primarily to words denoting actions (verbs) and attributes (adjectives and adverbs). For these parts of speech, it is important to determine the direction of the action, the time of its occurrence, the measure or degree of the attribute.

In nouns, as well as in adjectives, adverbs and verbs, prefixes often add additional indications of measure, degree (rogue - arch-rogue, cup - super cup) or indications of a temporary nature (language - proto-language, homeland - ancestral home, history - prehistory) .

Meanings of suffixes of a different kind. They range from broad and abstract to very specific meanings. The breadth and abstractness of meaning is characteristic of suffixes of verbs and adjectives. What is the meaning of the adjective suffixes -n-, -ov- and -sk- in the words:

1) bus, car, railway, book, school, paper;

2) lamp-ov, aspen-ov, game-ov, search-ov;

3) institute-sk-y, naval-sk-y, parliament-sk-y

1. These suffixes denote a characteristic through its relationship to what is called the original noun.

Verbal suffixes also have the same broad abstract meanings; Wed -well- and -e-: 1) jump-well, push-well; 2) smart, stupid, blue. The suffix -nu- has the meaning of instantaneousness, one-time action. The meaning of the suffix -e- is more abstract. It means "to be done, to become" somehow."

Suffixes of nouns in the Russian language are the most numerous and varied. They classify objects of reality, as if dividing the whole world into classes: names of people by profession, by attribute, by action, by place of residence; names of non-adult creatures, etc.

Among the suffixes of nouns there are suffixes with a specific meaning and with a broad abstract meaning [for example, the suffix of the abstract attribute -ost (cheerfulness, affectionateness, sugariness, jumping ability, vitality).

5. Suffixes often cause changes in the structure of the end of the stem (alternation of phonemes), since at the border of morphs the mutual adaptation of the stem and the suffix occurs, cf.: peas - - pea-ek, go-rosh-in-a; paper paper (see more details in Chapter 3). Prefixes usually do not affect the structure of the beginning of a word. Thus, prefixes behave in a word as elements that are formally more united and independent than suffixes.

6. The isolation of prefixes as part of a word is supported by another feature of them. They can have a side stress as part of the word (anti-democratic, anti-air, fire, co-tenants, intra-cellular, anti-neutrality). This is not typical for suffixes. The presence of special stress and structural independence in the composition of the word lead to the fact that positional changes in vowels, which extend to all morphemes of the word, may not affect prefixes. For example, the prefix co- with the meaning of compatibility in unstressed syllables of a word can retain [o], without being reduced and without changing into [ъ] or [а]16: co-tenant, co-guardian, co-directors.

Positional changes of consonants (for example, assimilative softening of consonants) at the junction of a prefix and a root are different than at the junction of a root and a suffix.

7. The universality of the meaning of prefixes, the closeness of their semantics to the semantics of particles and adverbs, their structural independence in the composition of a word lead to the fact that prefixes for the most part are more productive morphemes than suffixes. Their use is less regulated by restrictions associated with the semantics of the base (about the Concept of productivity, see Chapter 6).

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form the forms of a word and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.

Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express the grammatical meanings of the word - abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, mood, tense, degrees of comparison, etc.).

Endings and formative suffixes differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express.

The ending is a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences, that is, it is a means of coordination (new student), control (letter brother- y) or the connection of the subject with the predicate (I'm going-y, you're going-eating).

Only inflected words have endings. Function words, adverbs, unchangeable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Modified words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that lack the specified grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerunds.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have multiple endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr-i-st-a, tr-yoh-sot, sofa-bed, sofa-a-bed-i.

The ending may be null. It stands out in the word being modified if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed.

A zero ending is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word appears.

So, the ending is -a in table shape shows that this word is in the genitive case, -у in table-у

indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form table indicates that this is the nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information, it is significant. It is in such cases that the zero ending is highlighted in the word.

Words with a zero ending should not be confused with words that do not and cannot have endings - unchangeable words. Only inflected words can have a zero ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.

Formative suffix. Verb stem modifications

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form the forms of a word.

Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: these are suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and participial forms.

Non-verb formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjective and adverb.

Most verbs have two different kinds of stems: one is the present/simple future stem, and the other is the infinitive and past tense stem:

read- and read-, draw- and rice-, run- and run-, talk- and talk-.

There are verbs that have the same stems of the present / simple future and the infinitive: (id-ut, id-ti), and they are contrasted with the stem of the past tense (sh-l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: ter-t, ter-l-a, tr-ut; get wet, get wet, get wet.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: nes-ti, nes-l-a, nes-ut; take it, take it, take it.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have another past tense stem) and the conditional mood are formed.

From the stem of the present / simple future tense, in addition to the personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly visible in those verbs in which alternation of consonants is presented:

write - write - write - write

pish-u - pish-ush-y - pish-i-.

The verb contains the following formative suffixes:

1) the infinitive is formed by the form-building suffixes -т/-ти: read-т, не-ти. For infinitives on -ch there are two possible ways of highlighting inflection: oven or oven-  , Where  – zero formative suffix (historically, the end of the stem and the actual infinitive indicator overlapped).

2) the past tense of the indicative mood is formed by the suffixes -l- (de- l-) and --: carried-- – cf.: carried- l-A.

3) the same suffixes are presented in the conditional mood: dela- l- would, carry-- would.

4) the imperative mood is formed by the suffixes -and- (written- And-) - (and -do--, sit--).

5) the participle as a special form of the verb is formed by the suffixes -ash-(-yash-), -ush-(-yush-), -sh-, -vsh-, -im-, -om- / -em-, -nn- , -onn- / -enn-, -t-: run- ushch-yy, take- T-y (graphic variants of suffixes after soft consonants are indicated in brackets, alternating suffixes are indicated through a slash).

6) the gerund, as a special form of the verb, is formed by the suffixes -а(-я), -в, -shi, -вшы, -уuch(-yuchi): delaj- I, will- teach.

7) the simple comparative degree of an adjective and an adverb is formed using the suffixes -e (higher- e), -ee/-ey (fast- her), -she (before- she), -same (deep- same);

8) the simple superlative degree of comparison of the adjective is formed using the formative suffixes -eysh- / -aysh- (quick- eish-y, high- aish-ii);

9) plural form of nouns -y-/-ey-: prince – prince[y-a].

The root, or root morpheme, is the indivisible common part of all related words, containing the main element of their lexical meaning.

Based on the common meaning of root morphemes, nests of related words are formed in the word-formation system of the language. At the same time, various alternations of both vowels and consonants occur within the root, for example k//ch - wolf, wolf-y; g//f – boot, boot; x//sh, o//nudi sound – moss, za-mos-el-y; m//ml – feeding, feeding; i//e – freeze, freeze, etc.

Root morphemes can be free (young, youth) and bound (street, alley).

The root is such a minimal significant part that is opposed to all other morphemes, i.e. affixes: prefixes, suffixes, endings and some others. The root, unlike affixes, is an obligatory part of the word. If a word consists of one morpheme, then this is the root: here, and, cinema, etc.

The root forms the basis of non-derivative, or in other words, unmotivated words: son, head, house, etc.

The meaning of such simple words “is in no way connected with their sound appearance, does not follow from it, you cannot guess about it, you need to know it. If you don’t know what the combinations of sounds that form the words dog, horse, wall, business, window, egg and others mean, then you cannot guess it.

And the meaning of derivative words is determined by the meaning of simple words, motivated by it, just as the properties of chemical compounds depend on the properties of the elements included in them” (4, p. 6).

Words that have a common motivation form groups of words with the same root. What is interpreted in linguistics as general motivation is called similarity in meaning in school practice. However, the word “meaning” often turns out to be devoid of certain content for a child. If you regularly show that related words correlate with the same word, children will develop a method (action) by which they will establish the presence or absence of relatedness of words, and at the same time the expression “similar in meaning” will be filled with specific content. . Let's take, for example, the words winter, winter road, winter hut, winter. When working with them, you should not limit yourself to pointing out that these words have a common part of winter and are similar in meaning, you need to analyze the meaning of each of the words, turning to the motivating one: winter - spend the winter, winter road - a road for driving in winter, winter quarters - premises , where they live in winter, winter - related to winter, etc.

Material that allows you to teach children to establish semantic connections between words is available in the textbook. These are exercises where words are compared, one of which is simple and the other is derivative, for example: flowers - flower garden, salt - salt shaker, etc. Moreover, the textbook gives a sample of reasoning, which includes an appeal to the motivating word: “a bread bin is utensils in which bread is stored."

However, as practice shows, many students, when determining the relatedness of words, prefer to rely only on an external sign: a visually perceived identical segment of the analyzed words. We have repeatedly observed that not only schoolchildren, but also teachers showed helplessness when they were offered a task - a “trap”: to prove that the words stove-maker, forester and shoemaker are not related, although they have the same part - nickname and are similar in meaning - they call a person by his profession. To justify the lack of relationship between these words, it is necessary to show that each of them is explained by a different word: stove-maker - from stove, forester - from forest, shoemaker - from boots. In other words, if you determine from the very beginning that words that are explained using the same word are considered similar in meaning, the intuitive solution to the problem is replaced by a specific method of action. Moreover, in this case the action becomes easily controlled.

For example, students found a group of cognate words: strength, strong, effort. Then they check whether these words actually have a common root of force -: strong, having strength, effort - tension of force. If we continue to select related words, the general meaning will become even clearer: strongman is a person with great physical strength, strength is enormous strength.

In no case should you miss the opportunity to fill out groups of cognate words with the help of examples offered by children. This develops the students’ speech, gets them interested, and creates a desire to definitely find another word. Of course, when meaningfully analyzing the relationship of words, one can do without using explanatory dictionary impossible when preparing for lessons. It’s good if there are always explanatory dictionaries in the classroom, with which the teacher and children work right there in the classroom.

Prefixes and suffixes are mainly word-forming affixes: with their help, new words are formed, but in some cases they serve as a means of expressing grammatical meanings.

A prefix is ​​a significant part of a word that is located before a root or other prefix and is used to form new words or different forms the same word.

A suffix is ​​a significant part of a word that is located after a root or another suffix and serves to form new words and different forms of the same word.

Understanding prefixes and suffixes as parts of a word with the help of which new words are formed does not cause any particular difficulties if work is consistently carried out to distinguish between words and changes to one word, and also if each of the affixes is analyzed from two sides: by meaning and phonemic composition.

Unfortunately, in practice we have to observe that the only feature of a morpheme is its location: the part of the word before the root is a prefix; the segment between the root and the ending is a suffix. But, firstly, leaving aside the analysis of the meaning of the word-forming affix. We do not realize all the opportunities that this work opens up for the speech and general development of students, and secondly, with such a mechanical solution to the problem, we lose sight of the fact that the segment of a word before and after the root can consist not of one, but of several suffixes: with -u-paints, tamer-i-tel, teacher-i-l, etc. Even if the teacher avoids such words, they may end up among the words of the same root chosen by the children. Finally, by ignoring the internal side of the morpheme - its meaning, we do not create the prerequisites for monitoring the correct execution of the action.

Usually in elementary grades they check whether the prefix or suffix is ​​highlighted correctly, selecting words of the same root with or without other prefixes, of course. If you are analyzing leave or another similar word, then with this method the prefix will be found unmistakably: leave, drive in, move, go around, etc. But in the words mentioned above, the non-existent prefix “arrival-” or the suffix “iya” in the past tense verb, etc. can be found.

Let us recall the general method of analyzing the morphemic structure of a word in linguistics. A morpheme is identified by selecting words that have a common semantic feature and a segment that is identical in phonemic composition.

So, for example, the word winter is analyzed as part of three groups of words:

1st: winter, winter, winter, winter hut, winter, winterer, etc.;

2nd: winter, warm, blue, kind, strong, etc.;

3rd: winter, smart, summer, dusty, stone, etc.

The first row includes words that have a common motivation: they are all explained using the word winter. Comparison of the letter composition of words allows us to identify the general segment of winters - - the root.

In the second row are words that have the same grammatical meanings with the word winter; Nominative case, masculine, singular. The expression of these meanings is the ending of adjectives – й/й. If you change any of the grammatical meanings of these words, the letter composition of the ending will also change.

Finally, row 3. These words denote a characteristic characteristic of an object whose name is contained in the root. All these words have an -n- part, it is located after the root. This means that all these words are formed using the suffix –n-.

The universal way of finding morphemes in a word naturally extends to prefixes and suffixes. It follows from this that, when checking whether the prefix or suffix is ​​highlighted correctly, you need to select different words that have the same additional meaning and the same phonemic composition. Of course, this does not mean that you cannot use a selection of words with the same root with different prefixes, you just need to keep in mind that this technique does not guarantee, like any other private way, from errors. The general method of solving morpheme problems gives an unambiguous answer.

In addition, it is useful to keep in mind some features of prefixes and suffixes that suggest techniques for working with them. Thus, it is known that prefixes seem to be “glued” to the word in front. Removing the prefix, we get a whole, not deformed word of the same part of speech: from a verb - verb (threw - threw), from an adjective - adjective (underwater - water), etc. Of course, this does not apply to words formed in a prefix-suffix way (snowdrop).

For this reason, suffixes often “translate” a word from one part of speech to another: from a noun they form an adjective (sleep - sleepy), from adjectives - verbs (white - to whiten), etc. Moreover, each suffix is ​​combined with a stem of a certain type. Thus, the suffix - tiel- is attached to verb stems (teach - teacher), and the suffix - shchik- to nouns (stone-mason), etc. When suggesting ways to monitor the correct selection of prefixes and suffixes, it is advisable to draw children’s attention to these and other features of word-forming morphemes.

With the help of prefixes, new words are usually formed within the same part of speech: author - co-author, wear - wear, out-from-outside, etc.

Prefixes in the Russian language are most often used to form verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

To form different forms of the same word, prefixes are used less actively than suffixes. Nevertheless, they can also be formative: do - s-do, pallor - turn pale, go blind - o-go blind.

Russian prefixes can be attached to words of different parts of speech. Prefixes are not typically assigned to certain parts of speech due to the high degree of responsibility and universality of the meanings they express. Thus, the prefix expressing the meaning of “togetherness” is possible in the nouns co-participant, co-participant; verbs co-exist, co-experience; adjectives consonant, co-ultimate, etc.

Attaching prefixes to the stems of different words does not fundamentally change their meaning. Prefixes give this meaning new shades of meaning. Thus, the verbs run, run, essentially denote the same action as the verb run. Prefixes only show different directions of this action. The adverb pre-excellent and the adjective pre-sympathetic denote the same features as the words excellent and pretty, but the prefix gives the meaning of these features a connotation of the highest degree of quality.

Unlike prefixes, suffixes can have not only broad and abstract meanings, but also specific meanings. Suffixes of verbs and adjectives are distinguished by their great breadth and abstract meaning. Thus, the suffixes –n-, -ov-, -sk- convey only the relation to what is denoted by the common noun: book-n-y (book), berez-ov-y (birch), mor-sk-oy (sea ). The verb suffix - e- in verbs like white-e-t, red-e-t, has a broad meaning “to become, to be done, to somehow.” The suffixes of nouns are more specific than those of verbs and adjectives. They are used to name persons by profession: carpenter, painter, turner, baker, crane operator; by social status: collective farmer, schoolboy; by quality: sage, proud, brave.

If prefixes are not assigned to a specific part of speech, then suffixes are inherently so, and they cannot be used to form different parts of speech. With the help of strictly defined suffixes, nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs are formed. Thus, the suffix –ец- is used to form nouns, the suffix –и- only to form verbs (naw, promise), the suffix –chiv- only to form adjectives (choosy, persistent).

In some words, suffixes do not receive their material expression. In this case, it is customary to talk about the presence in the structure of these words of zero suffixes, for example: priver-a, verbal nouns, like the word priver-a, related to conversational style and containing a zero suffix in their structure, in the modern Russian language there are quite a lot: rev-et - rev-a (rev - -a), and other zero suffixes are used in the formation of adjectives and various verb forms.

Just like root morphemes, prefixes and suffixes of the Russian language are characterized by various alternations of sounds in their structure: climb - climb (zero sound //o); friend-ok – friend-to-a (o//zero sound), etc.

An ending or inflection is a variable significant part of a word that is located after the root morpheme or suffix and serves to connect this word with others as part of a phrase and sentence.

Endings are inherent in words that have inflectional forms: inflected nouns, conjugated forms of verbs, participles, adjectives, pronouns and numerals; with the help of endings, not new words are formed, but only forms of the same word necessary to connect a given word with others, the ending is usually an indicator of several grammatical meanings that a particular word has, for example, the ending -у in the noun newspaper (I received a newspaper) indicates that this word belongs to the grammatical category of the feminine gender, indicates the meaning of the accusative case and the singular.

Inflections, like suffixes, are of two types in Russian:

a) materially expressed: rainbow-a, go-y, beautiful, so-oh, first;

b) zero, i.e. not having a material, sound expression: wind, wind, wind; walked, walked, etc.

In the word wind, in correlation with other case forms of the past tense that have materially expressed endings, a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the nominative singular case and the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender inherent in this noun. In the word shel, in correlation with other verbal forms of the past tense, which have materially expressed inflections, the zero ending stands out. Which contains an indication of the masculine singular in this verb form of the past tense.

Not all words in Russian have endings. Words forming a group of indeclinable nouns do not have an ending; verbs in the indefinite form; participles; adverbs; adjectives in the comparative form; interjections; prepositions; unions; particles.

The main difference between a root and an ending is that the root is associated with the lexical meaning of the word, and the ending is associated with its grammatical characteristics: gender, number, person, etc. The root has a stable (taking into account phonemic alternations) letter composition, and the ending - changeable, since this morpheme reflects the constantly changing connections of a word with other words in sentences. The ending is an inflectional affix. This means that interchange of this morpheme does not lead to the emergence of a new word. The ending conveys the relationship between words, and not their objective meanings: a letter from a brother - a letter and a brother at etc.

Like any other morpheme, the ending reveals itself when it functions: if we change the grammatical meaning, the means of its expression (the sound composition of the ending) change. The first grammatical meaning with which schoolchildren begin to become acquainted with the ending as a special part of a word is the meaning of the number of all three most important parts of speech: .

Numeric value from all grammatical meanings the most understandable for younger schoolchildren, with the exception of some words (for example, those that, having a plural form, name one object: scissors, sleigh, etc.), the meaning of the number expresses the real differences between objects: one object or many objects. It is more difficult for children to understand that these material differences, reflected in language, change the connections between words.

In 2nd grade, schoolchildren learn: “The ending serves to connect words in a sentence.” But in the minds of children during this period, the concept of a connection between words does not go beyond semantic connections, while the concept of a grammatical connection has its own specific content, which should be revealed when analyzing phrases.

For example, in the phrase reads a book, the word naming the action can change “as it wants”: read a book, read a book, read a book, etc., and the second word “submits” to it, appearing in the form of a definite case: say “reads a book” ” or “reading a book” is not allowed. And this can be shown to children. Thus, even in reality initial stage Getting to know the ending without using any terms can reveal the role of this part of the word as a means of expressing special, formal (grammatical) connections between words.

As knowledge about parts of speech accumulates, students' knowledge about endings deepens. At the same time, ideas about the connections between words are concretized and a universal way of finding this morpheme in a word is formed:

a) the specific grammatical meaning of the word changes;

b) the original and received forms of the word are compared;

c) the changed part is located.

For example, the gender of adjectives is studied. We change the adjective according to gender: kind (person), kind (deed), kind (girl). We compare the resulting word forms: kind - kind - kind. We separate the changing parts: -th, -th, -th. This is the ending that tells what kind of adjective it is. Even if we don’t know what attribute the adjective names, but we only know what its ending is, we can already say something about this adjective. So, if it is known that a given adjective has an -oe ending, then we can say that it is associated with a neuter noun. And the more grammatical information about a given part of speech a student accumulates, the more information about the word the ending will tell him: the ending will tell him not only about the gender of the given adjective, but also about its number and case. At the same time, the general idea of ​​the ending as a two-way linguistic unit, in which its meaning is inextricably linked with a certain phonemic (sound) composition, will be concretized.

For example, the ending - aya indicates that this is a feminine singular nominative adjective. And the ending - ого of the same adjective differs from the first not only in sound composition, but also in meaning: -оgo indicates the masculine or neuter gender, the genitive and accusative case of the singular.

The more meaningful the concept of ending as a morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of a word becomes, the easier it is for students to distinguish between words and word forms. A formal feature appears, based on which one can unmistakably distinguish word forms from different words: only the ending has changed in the word - the word remains the same; changes occurred in that part of the word that is located before the ending - another word appeared.

It is important that this feature also works when the meanings of two or more words are almost identical. For example, the words little fish and little fish, wash and wash mean the same thing, but since there is a difference in the part before the ending, it means they are different words.

All the properties of ordinary endings are also characteristic of the so-called zero endings. They speak of a zero ending when there is a grammatical meaning, but there is no phoneme that would express it. For example, in the nominative case, nouns of the 2nd declension have a zero ending: table. And others case endings expressed by sounds: table-a, table-u, etc. in the classroom primary school you can hear that table is a word without ending. Subsequently, this “trifle” turns into the fact that a middle school student does not distinguish words that truly have no endings, for example, adverbs, from words that in one of their forms have a zero ending.

Since getting to know zero endings is not provided for in the current curriculum for primary grades, the teacher must show some ingenuity so as not to violate the principle of science and not force children to relearn over time. You can, for example, use some descriptive, metaphorical construction: “In this case the noun has a silent, silent ending, an invisible ending,” etc.

A postfix is ​​a significant part of a word that is located after the ending or suffixes in verb forms and serves to form new words or different forms of the same word.

As a postfix in the Russian language, the only service morpheme – sya (-s): katalsya, rolled.

The postfix –sya (sya) is also used when forming the form passive voice verbs: read - read, build - built, etc.

The postfix –sya is used in the structure of participles, as well as in other verbal forms, where it is preceded by a consonant sound. After vowel sounds in all verb forms, except participles, we use – s’.

Morphemes in the structure of a word follow each other in a strictly defined order; as a rule, they cannot be moved.

The connecting vowels o/e are function morphemes that are used to form compounds by combining the stems of two words.

The word-formative meaning of morphemes o/e “is a connecting meaning, which comes down to combining the meanings that make up the complex basis of motivating words into one holistic complex meaning.”

When forming a complex word, the connecting vowel located between the stems of two words neutralizes the grammatical meaning of the first of them and thereby creates the opportunity to combine two grammatically different words into one word, for example: fire-e-persistent. The general grammatical meaning of a compound word and, above all, its belonging to a certain part of speech, is formed on the basis of its second component.

The stress in a compound word also focuses on its supporting second component.

With the help of connecting vowels o/e, most complex nouns and adjectives are formed: forest-o-steppe, krpn-o-block, etc. Some compound nouns and very few adjectives have vowels. If the stem of the first word ends in a paired hard consonant, then after it the service morpheme -o- is used, for example: sam-o-let, vert-o-let. If the stem of the first word ends in a paired soft consonant, as well as in a hard hissing and c, then after them the service morpheme -e- is used, for example: stal-e-var, pesh-e-hod.

In adjectives inaccessible, above mentioned, and similar ones, formed by combining adverbs with adjectives into one word, -о- and –е- are suffixes of adverbs, but not connecting vowels.

Unlike prefixes and suffixes, which are used both to form new words and to form different forms of the same word, connecting vowels are used only to form new words.

An interfix is ​​a special building element of a word that acts as a necessary sound pad when connecting word-forming suffixes with the base of the word.

In the adjectives Orlovsky, Yalta, Peruvian, the suffix –sk- has the meaning “relating to what is called the generating base, and the parts of the words preceding it –ov, -in, -an are not included either in the root morphemes or in the composition of this suffix . They are necessary for the phonetic mutual adaptation of the specified suffix with the generating stems of the mentioned adjectives.

Using the interfix -l-, for example, the verb stem on a vowel and the suffix -ish- are connected in such nouns as dwell-l-ish-e, zhi-l-ish-e, and with the help of the interfix -v- the verb stem on gshlasny comes into contact with the suffix –uch- in such adjectives as zhi-v-uch-ii, pe-v-uch-ii.

The purpose of interfixes in the structure of a word is purely structural. Their function is to facilitate the connection of one morpheme with another, the phonetic mutual adaptation of the generating stem with the subsequent suffix in the structure of the derived word.

Thus, two types of morphemes are distinguished: root morphemes (roots) and service morphemes (affixes).

A root is a morpheme, which is the central element in the composition of a word, the main means of expressing its lexical meaning; the root is the common part of words related in lexical meaning, called cognate words.

An affix is ​​a service morpheme that expresses grammatical or word-formation meanings in a word.