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At the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. The Arab Caliphate reached its maximum power. From Persia, his hordes invaded Central Asia and reached India. The caliph's warriors confidently advanced across North Africa. Byzantine military leaders suffered defeats, fled or surrendered. From Morocco, the Arabs crossed over to Spain and took possession of it. Having crossed the Pyrenees, they occupied the southern part of France. New orders were established in the occupied countries. Those who did not surrender and were defeated in battle were enslaved. Those who submitted had to accept the laws of the caliphate.

All its residents were subject to a single, rather high tax, “kharaj” - it went to the army. Gentiles, Christians and Jews, paid an additional tax, jizya. Zoroastrians and pagans were subject to mandatory conversion to Islam. The benefits and indulgences provided to one or another people were gradually eliminated, and everyone was brought to a common standard. Having learned that the Armenian nobility was in contact with Byzantium, the Arabs punished them so that no one else would want to be willful. They summoned the nakharar princes to Nakhichevan for negotiations, locked them in churches and burned them. Georgia and Armenia were forced to pay heavy tribute and deprived of their autonomy; an Arab governor was appointed to govern Transcaucasia.

But many Christians in Syria, Africa, Asia Minor, and Spain voluntarily changed their faith. This opened up paths for a career, for service in the administration and the army. Using such specialists, the caliphate acquired a large fleet; it carried out raids into the Aegean Sea, ravaged the Greek islands and cities, and even destroyed the outskirts of Constantinople. And only in one place were the Arab attacks repulsed over and over again - the Russians and Khazars did not allow them to break through the Caucasus Mountains. The sides exchanged blows, and border Derbent changed hands every now and then.

Byzantium also held on somehow. It has noticeably decreased, it only has the Balkan Peninsula, the western regions of Asia Minor, Chersonesus, the Mediterranean islands and part of Italy. But the Khazars and northerners pulled the Arab forces away from the Asia Minor front. And the emperor still had enough soldiers and talented engineers. They invented a new design of siphons for the “Greek fire”, now they could be installed on ships. The Byzantine fleet burned several enemy squadrons, discouraging them from roaming around their shores. However, the spoiled elite of Constantinople was again struck by old diseases - selfishness, self-interest, passion for political intrigue. As soon as Heraclius died, all this erupted.

His heir Constantine III was poisoned by Martin's stepmother, who elevated her own son Herakleon to the kingdom. At this point the military became indignant and threw them off. Martine's tongue was cut out, her son was castrated and the crown was given to Heraclius' grandson Constant. But he was 11 years old, and the court entourage seized power. They began to run things for their own pleasure on behalf of the emperor. When he grew up, he tried to break out from under his care, but the temporary workers firmly clung to the throne. To free himself from them, the king had to escape from Constantinople. He moved to Sicily and wanted to move the capital there.

But Constant was killed by the conspirators. His son Constantine IV Pogonatus needed to pacify both the rebellion of the Sicilians and the rebellion of his brothers. Naturally, squabbles did not contribute to military success. Nevertheless, Pogonat managed to restore relative order in the empire, and this affected the defense. He stopped the Arabs and made peace with the caliphate. But the Bulgarians were advancing from the north. The Slavs, who settled in Macedonia and Greece, did not want to obey either the emperor or his officials. They did not pay taxes, they lived in their own communities. The Italians also became bolder and were also striving for independence. And the nobles of Constantinople were ready to strangle each other and the king himself for their own benefit.

In 685, 16-year-old Justinian II ascended the throne - a brave, talented man, but extremely cruel and unbalanced. He resumed the war with the Arabs and won a number of victories. He undertook a campaign against the Bulgarians, although it ended in a shameful failure. Justinian was much more successful in his punitive expeditions within the empire. He walked through the areas inhabited by the Slavs, crushed the rebellious tribes and forced them into obedience. After this, the emperor decided to kill two birds with one stone. Deprive the Bulgarians of potential allies and strengthen troops in the east. He ordered the deportation of 200 thousand Slavs to Asia Minor, let them fight against the Arabs. But here he miscalculated. Expulsion from their homes and forced relocation outraged the Slavs. Those of them who remained in the Balkans began to be transferred en masse to the Bulgarians. And on the Arab front, Prince Nebulos with a 20,000-strong army went over to the enemy’s side in the first battle, and the Byzantine army suffered a crushing defeat.

Justinian became furious. He ordered the complete execution of the entire tribe to which the traitorous Slavic warriors belonged, sparing neither women nor infants. The emperor undertook to solve the rest of the problems just as quickly. Began persecuting Italian separatists. Having received news that discontent was brewing in Ravenna, he en masse put to death all the noble citizens of this city. He intended to put pressure on the loose aristocracy of Constantinople, but they beat him to it. In 695, Justinian was overthrown, his nose was cut off and he was exiled to Chersonesus. The coup resulted in power struggles. First, the military leader Leontius reigned, he was defeated by Tiberius III, he also lost his nose and was sent to a monastery.

But Justinian did not lose hope of returning to the palace. In Chersonesus, he began to prepare a conspiracy, inciting residents to revolt. They did not support him, they brought him to the capital. But he fled to the Gothic city of Doras and contacted the Khazar kagan Ibuzir. He promised him all sorts of benefits if he helped him return the throne. Kagan agreed and allowed him to settle on Taman. Despite his mutilated nose, he passed off his sister as a fugitive, and at baptism she was named Theodora. But the embassy of Tiberius III arrived at Ibuzir with rich gifts. Justinian was afraid that he would be extradited, killed the commander of the Khazar guard assigned to him and fled to the Bulgarians by ship.

Khan Tervel ruled over them at that time. Justinian also made the most tempting promises to him, and the khan was not against helping his injured neighbor. In 705, the Bulgarian army suddenly approached Constantinople. Tiberius organized the defense, but Justinian and a detachment of soldiers made their way into the city through drainpipes, a commotion began, and the capital fell. The winner thanked Tervel extremely generously. He gave him his own daughter from his first marriage as his wife. He ordered that he be given the same honors as the emperor himself, crowned him “Caesar” - and from that moment on, the Bulgarian khans began to bear the title of “kings”. Justinian tried to restore friendship with Khazaria. He summoned the kagan's sister Theodora and declared her son heir to the throne. Khagan Ibuzir also visited Constantinople and was greeted with unprecedented honor. The emperor showered him with gifts and officially recognized the Khazar conquests in Crimea and Taman.

But terror fell on Justinian's enemies. Tiberius was executed. III, recovered from the Leontius monastery. Massacres of their supporters unfolded. According to lists and denunciations, they seized everyone who rose to the top during their reign, who participated in the overthrow of Justinian or at least approved of him. Their wives, children, distant relatives, and friends were also sentenced to death.

But Justinian could not live without enemies. With one hand he destroyed them, and with the other he himself multiplied their number. When he considered that he had established himself in power, he realized that he had granted too many rights to the Bulgarians. I decided it was time to put the “barbarians” in their place, and went to war against them. He was very badly burned. Coping with yesterday's friend Tervel turned out to be more difficult than signing sentences. The Bulgarians once again beat the emperor, he was forced to humbly ask for forgiveness and confirm all grants and concessions.

Then Justinian remembered another enemy - how Chersonesus refused to help him. Sent a punitive expedition to Crimea. Here, too, the blood of the executed was shed. The inhabitants of Chersonesus were horrified. There was a rumor that they wanted to destroy every single one of them. Knowing the monarch's disposition, they fully believed in this, and the city rebelled. He proclaimed a certain Philippic emperor and announced that he was surrendering under the protection of Khazaria. Because of this, a war almost broke out between Byzantium and the Kaganate. But the troops sent to suppress the rebellion went over to the side of the rebels and moved to Constantinople. Justinian fled, was caught and killed. The Khazar empress was also killed. The little heir sought salvation in the altar in the Blachernae Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary, he was pulled out and publicly stabbed to death on the city wall.

And then there was complete disgrace. If one impostor seized power, then why not others? Philippicus was finished off by Anastasius, he was deposed by Theodosius, and he was deposed by Leo III the Isaurian. In such pandemonium there was no need to talk about victories over external enemies. Byzantine soldiers fought with each other, and the Arabs again pressed them, taking away cities.

The Khazars and Russians had to fight back alone, without allies. In 708, the Arabs once again captured Derbent and invaded Khazaria. In fierce battles they were driven out, and in 711 the Khazars again occupied Derbent. In 713, one of the best Arab commanders, Muslim, the conqueror of Central Asia, arrived in Transcaucasia. He recaptured Derbent and moved north with the army. But he was stopped too. For two years, Muslim repeated attacks and did not achieve success; he was forced to retreat.

Then the caliphate shifted its efforts to another direction and decided to finish off Byzantium. It looked easier. The countless army was led by the same Muslim, a fleet of 1800 ships transported it to the European coast of the Dardanelles, and in 717 Constantinople was besieged both from land and sea. But Leo III the Isaurian turned out to be an intelligent and active ruler. He cast aside traditional “Roman” pride and turned to Bulgaria. He gave her a number of territories, undertook to pay an annual tribute of 30 pounds of gold, and King Tervel took the side of the Greeks. The Byzantine fleet, waiting for the right moment, attacked the Arab and burned it with “Greek fire.” Muslim's hordes were cut off from Asia and wintered under the walls of the city. The Bulgarian cavalry did not allow them to collect food and fodder. More than 100 thousand soldiers died from hunger, cold and disease, only the pitiful remnants of the army were saved.

But the Khazars did not allow Muslim to send help. While the commander was standing near Constantinople, the troops of the Kaganate and its allies went on the offensive, took Derbent, and broke into Transcaucasia. In 721, they struck another blow, invaded Armenia, and scattered the troops that came out against them. But the caliphate still had enough strength. The governor of Transcaucasia, Abu Ubaid Jarrah, received significant reinforcements and defeated the advancing enemies. Pursuing the thinned Khazar squads, he entered their country, captured and burned Belenjer, the capital of the Semender Kaganate. The governor did not dare to gain a foothold in foreign lands. He loaded the carts with rich booty, stole a lot of slaves and returned to his territory.

But new complications arose in Khazaria. Her defeat inspired the Alans. They left the power of the Kagan and started a war against him. Although the impulse for freedom cost them dearly. The Arabs did not care in what order to conquer the northern peoples. In 724 they passed through the Daryal Gorge, attacked Alanya and imposed tribute on it. The principalities of mountainous Dagestan were also defeated.

The Khazars retreated north and moved the capital away from their enemies. The city of Itil was founded in the lower reaches of the Volga. The Kagan's headquarters was located here, and the surviving families moved here. But the army quickly regained its combat capability. Already in 726, the Khazars with the northerners and Magyars drove the Arabs out of Derbent and again raided Transcaucasia. And year after year everything repeated itself. In 728 the Arabs attacked. Having repelled them, the son of Kagan Bardzhil ironed Azerbaijan. He, in turn, was kicked out; in 732, the governor of the caliph managed to return Derbent. After all the battles, the city turned into a pile of ruins, and the Arabs began to rebuild it, placing a 14,000-strong Syrian corps in it.

However, the invincibility of the caliphate was already ending. Having captured space from the Indian to the Atlantic Oceans and fought on many fronts, he scattered his forces. The former monolithic contingents of Arabs were diluted by representatives of many nations. And the Arabs themselves were reborn. The children and grandchildren of unpretentious Arabian nomads adopted Persian traditions - they acquired rich houses, numerous harems, servants, and their bosses surrounded themselves with luxury. And the construction of palaces, mosques, and the maintenance of armies required considerable funds. They were pumped out of the population and taxes were raised. The reaction was appropriate. One after another, uprisings broke out in Persia. In 733, a fire broke out in Central Asia. In 735, Georgia began to seethe and rise.

To pacify it, commander Mervan was appointed governor of Transcaucasia. He arrived with a large army and literally flooded the country with blood. Cities were destroyed. The entire population was driven in crowds to the places of execution, their heads were cut off, and they were thrown into abysses. No one was given pardon. When Georgia turned into a vast cemetery, Mervan judged that peace had been restored firmly and for a long time. This means you can do other things. He undertook to prepare a big campaign against Khazaria. In addition to his own contingents, he mobilized auxiliary units from Armenians, Agvans and other Caucasian peoples. In 736, the columns of his soldiers, filling all the roads, flowed through the mountain gorges and overwhelmed Alania and Dagestan.

The next year, 737, Merwan's 150,000-strong army rolled north. The Kagan gathered only 40 thousand fighters. They retreated beyond the Volga and began to retreat up the river. Mervan also reached the Volga and followed them along the right bank. For some time the armies moved in parallel. The Khazars, separated from the enemy by a wide river, felt inaccessible. But Mervan, having lulled their vigilance, suddenly built a pontoon bridge and threw a selected detachment across the Volga. He hit the Khazars by surprise and panic arose. The Kagan fled, 10 thousand of his soldiers were killed, 7 thousand were captured. After this defeat, Khazaria asked for peace. Mervan dictated the conditions to her - to recognize the power of the caliph and accept Islam. Kagan had no choice but to agree.

And on the way back, the Arabs and their vassals ravaged the villages on the “Slavic river” (on the Don) and drove away 20 thousand families of “sakaliba” (Slavs). 20 thousand families - that was 120–140 thousand people. In each family there are women of different ages, a string of boys and girls. Someone was captured with her husband, someone's head of family tried to protect his relatives and received an arrow or a spear. They were driven through the steppes, through the mountains. Like cattle, from watering hole to watering hole... How many people fell and did not get up, how many were killed along the way? But when the Slavs were brought to Transcaucasia, they did not want to be slaves. Exhausted women, teenagers, children rebelled. They tore to pieces the emir placed over them, killed the guards and decided to leave for their homeland. True, they didn’t go far. Mervan immediately sent troops, the fugitives were surrounded and were no longer taken prisoner, they exterminated every single one.

In general, both the Khazars and the Slavs suffered. But neither one nor the other submitted. The northerners were the first to recover from their losses and make themselves known. They paid harshly and fully for the theft and murder of their relatives. In the 750s. Armenian chronicles reported the invasion of “Sevordik”, and the Arabs called them “Savarzhdi”. This time they alone, without the Khazars, rushed into Azerbaijan in a storm, stormed and destroyed the city of Shamkhor, and devastated the outskirts of Ganja.

And the governor of Transcaucasia, Yasid bin Usaid al-Sulam, tried to remind the Khazars that they promised to become Muslims and subjects of the caliph. He received no answer. In 754 Yasid decided to repeat Merwan's campaign. But as soon as he passed the Daryal Gorge, he was met by an army of the Khazars and their friends. The fighting was stubborn and bloody, and Yasid was unable to break through the defenses. Many of his subordinates were killed, and the governor became nervous - after all, his offensive was supposed to attract retaliatory blows. Therefore, he invited the Kagan to make peace. And this time peace was concluded on equal terms; the subordination of Khazaria to the caliph was no longer remembered. The Caucasus Range was recognized as the border.

However, Yasid really needed to worry not about acquiring new possessions, but about the safety of existing ones. The Arab power was already collapsing. The executioner of Georgia and the conqueror of Khazaria, Mervan, became the last caliph from the Umayyad dynasty. Another uprising broke out in Persia, and Mervan was killed. The rebels enthroned the Abbasid dynasty and moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. But the usurpers were not recognized everywhere; other candidates for power were found. In the middle of the 8th century. The caliphate fell into pieces.

Not a single name of the Slavic princes, military leaders, or soldiers who participated in this hundred-year war has reached us. Even among the Khazar Khagans we know only a few. Our ancestors did not yet keep chronicles. And the opponents were not particularly interested in names. They wrote generally about the battles with the Khazars, “Rus”, “Sevordiks”. But these nameless fighters, who threw themselves into desperate slashings on the Terek, showered the enemy with arrows at the walls of Derbent, and covered the roads of Transcaucasia with the dust of their own bones - they won. They defended their native country from the most formidable conquerors of that era. And not just one country, but all of Eastern Europe.

Where did the Muslim script come from on the helmet of Alexander Nevsky, why did an eagle appear on the seal of Ivan III, did Ivan the Terrible kill his son? The history of Russian monarchs is full of mysteries.

Who was Rurik?
Historians have never come to a consensus about who Rurik was. According to some sources, he could be the Danish Viking Rorik of Jutland, according to others, the Swede Eirik Emundarson, who raided the lands of the Balts.
There is also a Slavic version of the origin of Rurik.
The 19th century historian Stapan Gedeonov associated the prince’s name with the word “Rerek” (or “Rarog”), which in the Slavic tribe of Obodrits meant falcon. During excavations of early settlements of the Rurik dynasty, many images of this bird were found.

Did Svyatopolk kill Boris and Gleb?
One of the main “anti-heroes” of the history of Ancient Rus' was Svyatopolk the Accursed. He is considered to be the murderer of the noble princes Boris and Gleb in 1015. Folk etymology connects the nickname of Svyatopolk with the name of Cain, although this word goes back to the Old Russian “kayati” - to repent.
Despite the accusation of murdering princes, the name of Svyatopolk was not removed from the family list of princely names until the middle of the 12th century.
Some historians, for example, Nikolai Ilyin, believe that Svyatopolk could not kill Boris and Gleb, since they recognized his right to the throne. In his opinion, the young princes fell victim at the hands of the soldiers of Yaroslav the Wise, who laid claim to the Kiev throne. For this reason, the name of Svyatopolk was not removed from the family list of names.

Where did the remains of Yaroslav the Wise disappear?
Yaroslav the Wise, son of Vladimir the Baptist, was buried on February 20, 1054 in Kyiv in the marble tomb of St. Clement. In 1936, the sarcophagus was opened and they were surprised to find several mixed remains: a man, a woman and several bones of a child.
In 1939, they were sent to Leningrad, where scientists from the Institute of Anthropology established that one of the three skeletons belonged to Yaroslav the Wise.
However, it remained a mystery who owned the other remains and how they got there. According to one version, Yaroslav’s only wife, the Scandinavian princess Ingegerde, rested in the tomb. But who was Yaroslav’s child buried with him? With the advent of DNA technology, the question of opening the tomb arose again.
The relics of Yaroslav, the oldest surviving remains of the Rurik family, were supposed to “answer” several questions. The main one is: are the Rurik family Scandinavians or Slavs?
On September 10, 2009, looking at the pale anthropologist Sergei Szegeda, the staff of the St. Sophia Cathedral Museum realized that things were bad. The remains of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise disappeared, and in their place lay a completely different skeleton and the newspaper “Pravda” for 1964.
The mystery of the newspaper's appearance was quickly solved. It was forgotten by Soviet specialists, the last ones who worked with the bones.
But with “self-proclaimed” relics the situation was more complicated. It turned out that these were female remains, and from two skeletons dating back to completely different times! Who these women are, how their remains ended up in the sarcophagus, and where Yaroslav himself disappeared remains a mystery.

Where does the Muslim script on Alexander Nevsky's helmet come from?


On the helmet of Alexander Nevsky, in addition to diamonds and rubies, there is Arabic script, the 3rd verse of the 61st sura of the Koran: “Give joy to the faithful with the promise of help from Allah and speedy victory.”
During the course of countless checks and examinations, it was established that the “Jericho Cap” was forged in the East (where the Arabic inscriptions come from) in the 17th century.
Then, by chance, the helmet ended up with Mikhail Fedorovich, where it underwent “Christian tuning.” The helmet was mistakenly attributed to Nevsky, but because of this mistake it was on the coat of arms of the Russian Empire along with other royal “hats”.
It is interesting that Arabic script also decorated the helmet of Ivan the Terrible, as well as other noble persons of medieval Rus'. Of course, we can say that these were trophies. But it is difficult to imagine that the regulated Ivan IV would place a used helmet on his crowned head. Moreover, it is used by the “infidel”. The question of why the noble prince wore a helmet with Islamic inscriptions still remains open.

Why did an eagle appear on the seal of Ivan III?
The double-headed eagle in Russia first appeared on the state seal of Grand Duke Ivan III in 1497. Historians almost categorically assert that the eagle appeared in Rus' with the light hand of Sophia Paleologus, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor and the wife of Ivan III.
But no one explains why the Grand Duke decided to use the eagle only two decades later.
It is interesting that it was at the same time in Western Europe that the double-headed eagle became fashionable among alchemists. Authors of alchemical works put the eagle on their books as a sign of quality. The double-headed eagle meant that the author had received the Philosopher's Stone, which could turn metals into gold. The fact that Ivan III gathered around him foreign architects, engineers, and doctors, who probably practiced then fashionable alchemy, indirectly proves that the tsar had an idea of ​​the essence of the “feathered” symbol.

Did Ivan the Terrible kill his son?
The murder of his heir by Ivan Vasilyevich is a highly controversial fact. So, in 1963, the tombs of Ivan the Terrible and his son were opened in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Research has made it possible to claim that Tsarevich John was poisoned. The poison content in his remains is many times higher than the permissible limit. Interestingly, the same poison was found in the bones of Ivan Vasilyevich.
Scientists have concluded that the royal family was the victim of poisoners for several decades.
Ivan the Terrible did not kill his son. This version was adhered to, for example, by the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, Konstantin Pobedonostsev. Seeing Repin’s famous painting at the exhibition, he was outraged and wrote to Emperor Alexander III: “The painting cannot be called historical, since this moment... is purely fantastic.”
The version of the murder was based on the stories of the papal legate Antonio Possevino, who can hardly be called a disinterested person.

Why did Ivan the Terrible move to Alexandrovskaya Sloboda?


Grozny's move to Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda was an unprecedented event in Russian history. In fact, for almost 20 years Alexandrovskaya Sloboda became the capital of Russia. Here Ivan the Terrible began to establish international relations for the first time after centuries of isolation, conclude important trade and political agreements, and receive embassies of European powers.
Grozny moved there the first printing house in Russia, where the students of pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov Andronik Timofeev and Nikifor Tarasiev worked, who printed many books and even the first leaflets there.
Following the sovereign, the best architects, icon painters, and musicians came to Alexandrovskaya Sloboda. A book-writing workshop operated at the court, and the prototype of the first conservatory was created.
Tsarist diplomats were ordered to explain to foreigners that the Russian Tsar left for the “village” of his own free will “for his own coolness,” that his residence in the “village” is located near Moscow, therefore the Tsar “rules his state both in Moscow and in Sloboda.”
Why did Grozny decide to move? Most likely, the monastic brotherhood in Sloboda was formed in the wake of the conflict between Ivan IV and Metropolitan Philip. The head of the church exposed the king's unrighteous life. The presence of a monastic brotherhood in Sloboda showed everyone with their own eyes that the sovereign was leading the life of a saint. Ivan the Terrible did not flirt much with his brotherhood. In 1570-1571, some brothers were stabbed to death or hanged on the gates of their own houses, others were drowned or thrown into prison.

Where did Ivan the Terrible's library go?
According to legend, after his move to Alexandrovskaya Sloboda, Ivan the Terrible took the library with him. Another hypothesis says that John hid it in some reliable Kremlin hiding place. But be that as it may, after the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the library disappeared.
There are many versions of the loss. First: priceless manuscripts burned in one of the Moscow fires. Second: during the occupation of Moscow, the “liberea” was taken to the West by the Poles and sold there in parts.
According to the third version, the Poles actually found the library, but in conditions of famine, they ate it there in the Kremlin.
They searched for the library for a long time, but in vain. Searches for “liberea” were also carried out in the 20th century. However, academician Dmitry Likhachev said that the legendary library is unlikely to be of great value.

Why did Ivan the Terrible abdicate the throne?
In 1575, Ivan the Terrible abdicated the throne and placed the serving Tatar khan Simeon Bekbulatovich on the throne. Contemporaries did not understand the meaning of the monarch’s undertaking. A rumor spread that the sovereign was frightened by the predictions of the magicians. The news of this was preserved by one of the later chroniclers: “And the Netsy say that he imprisoned (Simeon) for this reason, that the wise men told him that in that year there would be a change: the Tsar of Moscow would die.”
The autocrat received warnings of this kind from sorcerers and astrologers more than once.
Ivan began to call himself “serf Ivashka.” But it is significant that for some reason the power of the “serf” continued to extend to the lands of the former Kazan Khanate, where Ivan retained the title of tsar.
Most likely, Ivan was afraid that, having found himself under the rule of a real Genghisid, the Kazan people would perhaps perk up and encourage Simeon to revolt. Of course, Simeon was not a real king; the uncertainty of his position was aggravated by the fact that he took the royal throne, but received only the title of grand duke instead of the royal one.
In the third month of Simeon’s reign, the Terrible told the English ambassador that he could again take the rank whenever he pleased, and would act as God instructed him, because Simeon had not yet been approved by the wedding ceremony and was appointed not by popular election, but only by his permission.
Simeon's reign lasted 11 months, after which Ivan deposed him and generously rewarded him with Tver and Torzhok, where Simeon died in 1616, having taken monasticism before his death. For almost a year, Grozny carried out his strange experiment.

Was False Dmitry “false”


We have already accepted that False Dmitry I is the fugitive monk Grishka Otrepiev. The idea that “it was easier to save than to fake Demetrius” was expressed by the famous Russian historian Nikolai Kostomarov.
And indeed, it looks very surreal that at first Dmitry (with the prefix “false”) was recognized in front of all the honest people by his own mother, princes, boyars, and after some time - everyone suddenly saw the light.
The pathological nature of the situation is added by the fact that the prince himself was completely convinced of his naturalness, as his contemporaries wrote about.
Either this is schizophrenia, or he had reasons. It is not possible, at least today, to check the “originality” of Tsar Dmitry Ivanovich.

Who killed Tsarevich Dmitry?
If Dmitry did die, what caused his death? At noon on May 25, 1591, the prince was throwing knives with other children who were part of his retinue. In the materials of the investigation into the death of the son of Ivan the Terrible, there is evidence of one youth who played with the prince: “... the prince was playing poke with a knife with them in the backyard, and an illness came upon him - an epileptic illness - and attacked the knife.”
In fact, this testimony became the main argument for investigators to classify Dmitry Ioannovich’s death as an accident.
However, the official version still does not suit historians. The death of the last sovereign from the Rurik dynasty opened the way to the kingdom of Boris Godunov, who was actually the ruler of the country even when Fyodor Ioannovich was alive. By that time, Godunov had gained a popular reputation as the “killer of the prince,” but this did not bother him much. Through cunning manipulations, he was nevertheless elected king

Was Peter I replaced?
Many Russian boyars were of this conviction after the return of Peter I from a 15-month tour of Europe. And the point here was not only in the new royal “outfit”.
Particularly attentive persons found inconsistencies of a physiological nature: firstly, the king had grown significantly, and, secondly, his facial features had changed, and, thirdly, the size of his legs had become much smaller.
Rumors spread throughout Muscovy about the replacement of the sovereign.
According to one version, Peter was “put into the wall,” and instead of him, an impostor with a similar face was sent to Rus'. According to another, “the Germans put the Tsar in a barrel and sent it to sea.” Adding fuel to the fire was the fact that Peter, who returned from Europe, began a large-scale destruction of “ancient Russian antiquity.”
There were also rumors that the Tsar had been replaced in infancy: “The Tsar is not of Russian breed, and not the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich; taken in infancy from a German settlement, from a foreigner on exchange. The queen gave birth to a princess, and instead of the princess they took him, the sovereign, and gave the princess instead of him.”

To whom did Peter I bequeath power?


Peter I died before he could appoint an heir. After him, Catherine I took the throne, and then a long political leapfrog followed, called the Age of Palace Coups. In 1812, after the collapse of the Napoleonic invasion, a certain “Testament of Peter I” became known.
In 1836 it was published, albeit in French. In his will, Peter allegedly called on his successors to wage constant wars with Europe, divide Poland, conquer India and neutralize Turkey. In general, to achieve complete and final hegemony in Eurasia.
The credibility of the document was given by some of the “testaments” that had already been fulfilled, for example, the division of Poland. But, at the end of the 19th century, the document was carefully studied and found to be fake.

Who was Paul I?
Emperor Paul I unwittingly continued the tradition of generating rumors around the House of Romanov. Immediately after the birth of the heir, rumors spread throughout the court, and then throughout Russia, that the real father of Paul I was not Peter III, but the first favorite of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna, Count Sergei Vasilyevich Saltykov.
This was indirectly confirmed by Catherine II, who in her memoirs recalled how Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, so that the dynasty would not fade away, ordered the wife of her heir to give birth to a child, regardless of who his genetic father would be. There is also a folk legend about the birth of Paul I: according to it, Catherine gave birth to a dead child from Peter, and he was replaced by a certain “Chukhon” boy.

When did Alexander I die?


There is a legend that Alexander the First left the royal throne, faking his own death, and went to wander around Rus' under the name of Fyodor Kuzmich. There are several indirect confirmations of this legend.
Thus, witnesses concluded that on his deathbed Alexander was categorically unlike himself.
In addition, for unclear reasons, Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna, the Tsar's wife, did not participate in the funeral ceremony.
The famous Russian lawyer Anatoly Koni conducted a thorough comparative study of the handwriting of the emperor and Fyodor Kuzmich and came to the conclusion that “the letters of the emperor and the notes of the wanderer were written by the hand of the same person.”

Arabian Sultanate

State in Asia Minor, capital - Muscat

State in the east of the Arabian Peninsula

Tribe-chiefdom among the Akan peoples (ethnographic)

Sultanate in Asia

Medicinal plant

Yemen's neighbor

Country with Muscat

State in Asia

Which country has the domain "om"?

Which Asian country has Muscat as its capital?

Sultanate country

Asian Sultanate

Saudi Arabia's neighbor

Sultanate

Ru - Russia, а.om?

Whose capital is Muscat?

Country in Asia

Austrian Sultanate

Moscow - Russia, Muscat - ...

Arab state

Country on the Arabian Peninsula

Area surrounding Muscat

Delhi is India, what about Muscat?

Country of Sultans

Country with the city of Muscat at its head

Southern neighbor of the Emirates

Arabian country

Borders with Saudi Arabia

Sultanate on the Arabian Peninsula

Arabian state

State of the Sultans

Its capital is Muscat

Country with main city Muscat

Yemen's eastern neighbor

Country with a bay of the same name

Bern is Switzerland, what about Muscat?

Borders with the Emirates

Area around Muscat

Which country has an exclave of Madha?

The country where the Sultan rules

A country ruled by sultans

Asian state

The Sultan rules the roost there

Borders with the UAE

Where is Sinbad the Sailor from?

Country around Muscat

State on the Arabian Peninsula

State in Asia

Ru - Russia, а.om

Bern is Switzerland and Muscat

Borders the Emirates and Yemen

Delhi is India and Muscat

I. plant Indula heleenium, elecampane, divosil

Country with capital Muscat

Which Asian country's capital is Muscat?

Which country has an exclave of Madha

Whose capital is Muscat

Which country has the domain "om"

Where is Sinbad the Sailor from?

Anagram for the word "Amon"

Anagram for "Mona"

Former "Pirate Coast"

Anagram for the word "Amon"

Anagram for "Mona"

Historically, for many centuries, Arab states obeyed the dogmas and norms of the religion of Islam and did not know the rule of kings and emperors. So who ruled in them and what is the name of the supreme ruler? Let's try to figure it out.

Most often, the form of government of the country is determined by it. If the ruler is called a sultan - then a sultanate, a caliph (the old name for a caliph) - a caliphate, and so on. Let's figure out what they have in common and what the main differences are.

Caliphs (Caliphs)

Representative of both secular and religious government without any division, the supreme ruler in Arab countries is the caliph. It was believed that the caliphs were previously the viceroys of the Prophet Muhammad on earth. Under such a rule, it is religion that is the founder and has a huge influence on the political direction of life in the country.

In addition, the Egyptian and then the Turkish sultans were also called Caliphs, emphasizing their spiritual supremacy over the Muslim inhabitants.

Sultans

Sultan is another official title that answers the question of what the supreme ruler is called in Arab countries. If the sultan is at the head, then the state itself or part of it (region, region, state) is called the sultanate. The name came to the world of Islam from the Koran as a designation of power; later “sultan” began to designate a representative of secular power, as opposed to “imam”, as a representative of religious power.

The main distinguishing feature of the sultanate in the Islamic world is the rule of the dynasty for a long period. Being part of the caliphate, such a state was nevertheless independent and subordinated only to its ruler from the local dynasty. But it happened that an elected official also came to power.

Nowadays there is not a single country left where a sultan rules. The last known sultanates, Zanzibar, Katari, Quaiti and Lahej, disappeared from the world map in 1964 and 1967. Although the most famous sultanates are rightfully considered the Ottoman, with its capital in Constantinople, and the Mamluk - the capital is Cairo.

Sheikhs and emirs

Some dynasties of modern representatives of power in Arab countries, such as Kuwait, Bahrain and others, appeared during the settlement of tribes. Then they themselves chose the sheikhs - another title that the supreme Arab ruler can bear.

It was the sheikhs who influenced the life of the clan, their power grew, they became stronger at the expense of weaker clans. And this process continued until one of the most powerful sheikhs founded his dynasty, transferring power and control to his children and grandchildren.

In the UAE, as the name suggests, it is headed by another option, as the supreme ruler is called in Arab countries. The title is inherited. Although the country consists of seven independent administrative units - emirates, they are all subordinate to the supreme ruler. Sometimes he is also called the president, although this is not entirely correct, since the position is inherited.

Kings and Presidents

In some countries, for example, in Jordan or Morocco, the monarchy is still preserved, when power is united and concentrated in the hands of one ruler. The ruling person bears the title of king. Naturally, the word itself is of non-Arab origin and was introduced into the language by the colonialists who at one time exhibited these territories, although it answers the question of what the supreme ruler in Arab countries is called.

There are known cases when the form of government in a country changed, and therefore the name of the head of state. For example, in Qatar in the 70th year of the 20th century a constitution was adopted. It stated that representatives of the emirates could choose a ruler from among themselves for a period of five years. In this case, the title of the ruler is president.