Help on Tele2, tariffs, questions

Herr Dühring discovered in Marx a very gross economic error, worthy of a junior student and at the same time containing a socially dangerous socialist heresy.

Marx's theory of value is“no more than the usual... teaching that labor is the cause of all values, and work time- their measure. At the same time, the idea of ​​how one should think about the different costs of so-called skilled labor remains completely unclear. True, according to our theory, the natural cost and, consequently, the absolute value of household items can only be measured by the labor time spent. But at the same time, we proceed from the fact that the working time of one individual is recognized as completely equivalent to the working time of another, and we only have to monitor those cases when, in skilled work, the working time of other persons is added to the individual working time of one person... for example, in the form of a tool used . Consequently, the situation is not, as Mr. Marx vaguely imagines, that someone’s labor time in itself has a greater value than the labor time of another person, because in the first of them a larger amount of average labor time is, as it were, condensed; no, all working time, without exception and in principle, - therefore, without the need to first derive any average - is completely equivalent, and when considering the work of any person, as when considering each finished product, you only need to find out how much labor time of other persons is hidden in what at first glance appears to be an expenditure of only his own working time. For the strict significance of the theory, it is not at all important what exactly will be that which could not receive a special property and special performance without the working time of other people - whether it will be the instrument of production used by the hand, or the hand itself, or even the head. Meanwhile, Mr. Marx, in his discussions of value, cannot get rid of the specter of skilled labor time flickering in the background. He was prevented from being radical in this direction by the way of thinking he inherited from the educated classes, to whom it must seem monstrous to admit that the working time of a wheelbarrow worker and the working time of an architect are economically completely equivalent.”

The passage in Marx that aroused this “more powerful anger” of Herr Dühring is very short. Marx explores what determines value goods, and answers: by the human labor contained in them. The last one, he continues, "there is a simple expenditure work force, which on average the bodily organism of every ordinary person, not distinguished by special development, possesses... Comparatively complex labor means only simple labor raised to a power, or rather multiplied, so that a smaller amount of complex labor equals a larger amount of simple labor. Experience shows that such a reduction of complex work to simple work occurs constantly. A commodity may be the product of the most complex labor, but its value makes it equal to the product of simple labor, and, therefore, itself represents only a certain amount of simple labor. Various proportions in which different kinds labor are reduced to simple labor as a unit of measurement, are established by the social process behind the backs of the producers and therefore seem to be the latter established by custom.” .

Marx is talking here primarily about the determination of value. goods, that is, such objects that are produced within a society consisting of private producers - are produced by these private producers at private expense and are exchanged with one another. Consequently, what is being said here is not at all about “absolute value,” wherever this may live, but about value that is valid under a certain form of society. It turns out that this value, in this certain historical understanding, is created and measured by human labor, embodied in individual goods, and this human labor further turns out to be the expenditure of simple labor power. However, not all labor represents just the expenditure of simple human labor: many types of labor involve the use of skills or knowledge acquired with a greater or lesser expenditure of effort, time and money. Do these types of complex labor create, in equal periods of time, the same commodity value as simple labor, as does the expenditure of just simple labor power? Clearly not. The product of an hour of complex labor is a product of higher, double or triple, value compared to the product of an hour of simple labor. Through this comparison, the value of the products of complex labor is expressed in certain quantities of simple labor, but this reduction of complex labor to simple is accomplished through a certain social

process behind the backs of producers - a process that here, when presenting the theory of value, can only be stated, but not yet explained.

It is this simple fact, happening every day before our eyes in modern capitalist society, that Marx states here. This fact is so indisputable that even Herr Dühring does not dare to dispute it either in his Course or in his History of Political Economy. Marx's presentation is distinguished by such simplicity and transparency that probably no one except Herr Dühring could “will remain completely unclear”. It is precisely because of this complete obscurity in which Herr Dühring finds himself that he mistakenly takes the value of commodities, the study of which is the only thing Marx has been studying here, for "natural cost", further increasing the ambiguity, and even beyond "absolute value", which until now, as far as we know, has not been in circulation in political economy. Whatever, however, Herr Dühring understands by “natural cost” and whichever of his five types of value has the honor of representing “absolute value”, one thing is certain: Marx does not speak at all about these objects, but only speaks about the value of goods, and in the entire section of Capital, which treats value, there is not the slightest hint as to whether Marx considers this theory of the value of goods to be also applicable to other forms of society, and if he does, then to what extent.

"Hence" , continues Mr. Dühring,“The situation is not, as Mr. Marx vaguely imagines, that someone’s labor time in itself has a greater value than the labor time of another person, because in the first of them a larger amount of average labor time is, as it were, condensed; no, all working time, without exception and in principle - therefore, without the need to first derive any average - is completely equivalent.”

It was fortunate for Herr Dühring that fate did not make him a manufacturer and thus saved him from having to set the value of his goods according to this new rule, and consequently from inevitable bankruptcy. But what am I saying! Are we still in the society of factory owners? Not at all. With his natural cost and absolute value, Herr Dühring forced us to take a leap, a real salto mortale, from the present bad world of exploiters into his own economic commune of the future, into the pure heavenly atmosphere of equality and justice - and we must therefore, although somewhat prematurely , already here take a little look into this new world.

True, according to Herr Dühring’s theory, even in an economic commune the value of economic things can also be measured only by the labor time spent, but at the same time, everyone’s working time will be valued in advance in exactly the same way, all working time will be considered completely equivalent, without exception, and in principle, and moreover - without the need to first derive any average value. And now let the reader compare this radical egalitarian socialism with Marx’s vague idea that someone’s labor time in itself has a greater value than the labor time of another person, because in the first of them a larger amount of average labor time is condensed - an idea from which Marx is unable to free himself due to the mode of thinking of the educated classes that he inherited, to which it must seem monstrous to admit that the working time of a wheelbarrow worker and the working time of an architect are economically completely equivalent!

The only trouble is that Marx adds a small note to the above passage in Capital: “The reader should keep in mind that this is not about wages, or the cost that the worker receives, for example, in one working day, and about cost of goods, wherein reified his working day". Marx, as if anticipating his Dühring, therefore himself warns against applying the above provisions even to the wages paid for complex labor in today’s society. And if Herr Dühring, not content with the fact that he nevertheless does this, in addition characterizes the above-mentioned provisions as those fundamental principles according to which Marx supposedly wants to regulate the distribution of the means of subsistence in a socialistically organized society, then this is simply a shameless juggling , the like of which can only be found among robbers of the pen.

Let us, however, take a closer look at Dühring's doctrine of equivalence. All working time is completely equivalent: the working time of a wheelbarrow worker, as well as the working time of an architect. Thus, labor time, and therefore labor itself, has value. But labor is the creator of all values. He alone gives the objects we find in nature value in the economic sense. Value itself is nothing more than an expression of the socially necessary human materialized in any object.

labor. Therefore, labor can not have no value. Talking about the cost of labor and trying to determine it is the same as talking about the value of value itself or trying to determine the weight not of some heavy body, but of the weight itself. Herr Dühring deals with people like Owen, Saint-Simon and Fourier, calling them social alchemists. But when he philosophizes over the cost of working time, that is, over the cost of labor, then he proves that he himself is still much lower than real alchemists. Let the reader now judge for himself the audacity with which Herr Dühring foists on Marx the assertion that the labor time of one person in itself has a greater value than the labor time of another, and that labor time, and therefore labor, has value - let the reader judge for himself the audacity with which this is attributed to Marx, who first showed that labor can not have value and why exactly it cannot have it!

For socialism, which wants to liberate human labor from its condition goods, it is very important to understand that labor has no value and cannot have it. With this understanding, all attempts to regulate the future distribution of means of subsistence as a kind of higher form wages—attempts passed down to Herr Dühring as an inheritance from spontaneous workers' socialism. Hence, as a further conclusion, it follows that distribution, in so far as it is governed by purely economic considerations, will be regulated by the interests of production, and the development of production is most stimulated by such a method of distribution that allows everyone members of society to develop, support and demonstrate their abilities as comprehensively as possible. To the way of thinking of the educated classes, inherited by Herr Dühring, it must, of course, seem monstrous that the time will come when there will be neither wheelbarrow makers nor architects by profession, and when the man who for half an hour gave instructions as an architect will then, for some time, time to push the wheelbarrow until the need for his activities as an architect arises again. It would be nice to have socialism that perpetuates professional wheelbarrow drivers!

If the equivalence of labor time should have the meaning that each worker produces equal values ​​in equal periods of time and that there is no need to first derive any average value, then it is quite obvious that this is not true. Value created by an hour of labor

two workers, even in the same branch of production, will always be different, depending on the intensity of labor and the skill of the worker; this misfortune - which, however, can only seem like a misfortune to people like Dühring - cannot be helped by any economic commune, at least on our planet. What remains, therefore, of the whole concept of the equivalence of all labor? Nothing but an empty, loud phrase, the economic basis of which is only Herr Dühring’s inability to distinguish between the determination of value by labor and the determination of value wages, - nothing but a simple decree, a kind of fundamental law of the new economic commune: wages for equal working hours must be equal! But in this case, the old French communist workers and Weitling had already given much better arguments in favor of their demand for equality of wages.

How is it generally allowed? important question about higher pay for complex work? In a society of private producers, the cost of training a worker is borne by individuals or their families; That is why private individuals receive, first of all, the higher price of trained labor: a skilled slave is sold at a higher price, a skilled hired worker receives a higher wage. In a society organized socialistically, these expenses are borne by society, therefore the fruits, that is, greater values ​​created by complex labor, also belong to it. The employee himself has no right to claim additional pay. From this, by the way, another practical conclusion follows: the favorite slogan about the worker’s right to a “full income from work” is also sometimes not so invulnerable.

A history teacher

Nesvat Natalia Sergeevna

MBOU "Secondary School No. 4" Reutov

5th grade

Verification work on the topic: “Labor”

Ability to be creative 2. Caring for offspring

Master 2. Genius 3. Craftsman 4. Painter

Standard 2. Stencil 3. Copying 4. Novelty

Wage 2. Product 3. Land 4. Premium

Minimum wage. 2. Living wage. 3. Simple labor.

Fantasy 2. Collectivism 3. Practicality 4. Planning

Patron 2. Millionaire 3. Sponsor 4. Help 5. Donation

Simple 2. Complex 3. Mental 4. Free

An artist paints a picture 3. An actor performs on stage A scientist makes a discovery 4. A ballerina practices dance technique

Difficult work

the work of a qualified worker, i.e. skilled labor ; is associated with additional costs for training and education of a qualified workforce (See Labor force). In the process of producing goods, social technology creates a large value per unit of time , than Simple Labor. Therefore, labor represents multiplied (raised to a power) simple labor. The reduction of labor to the simple (reduction of labor) is completed in the process of exchange of goods through the comparison of their values.

In the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, the share of complex, skilled labor in the workforce is increasing. During the period of building a communist society, significant differences between mental and physical labor are gradually being overcome on the basis of a significant increase in the skills of the broad masses of workers. Simultaneously with the change in the content of simple labor, the specific gravity workers performing S. t.

V.V. Motylev.

Big Soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what “Complicated work” is in other dictionaries:

Labor is the purposeful activity of a person, during which he, with the help of tools of labor, influences nature and uses it to create use values ​​necessary to satisfy needs. Considered in such... ...

I is the purposeful activity of man, during which he, with the help of tools of labor, influences nature and uses it to create use values ​​necessary to satisfy needs. Considered in such… Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Husband. work, occupation, exercise, business; everything that requires effort, diligence and care; any strain of bodily or mental strength; everything that tires you. Man is born to work. Without labor there is no good. Labor feeds and clothes. I've lost my laziness. What the… … Dictionary Dahl

SKILLED LABOR- work requiring special vocational training, knowledge, skills and abilities to perform, as a rule, complex work. Unlike unskilled (simple) labor, K.t. acts as a complex one, one hour of which is equivalent to... ... Large economic dictionary

WORK- the process of people creating conditions and means of subsistence; embodiment of human strength, skills, knowledge; transformations and adaptations natural material to human needs. T. a method of reproduction and accumulation of social experience; V… … Modern philosophical dictionary

The work of a worker who does not have qualifications (See Qualification), i.e. unskilled labor. Any complex work can be reduced to P. t., since, according to K. Marx’s characterization, “comparatively complex work means only that which has been built into ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

SKILLED LABOR- complex work that requires special training, the worker’s skills, abilities and knowledge to perform certain types of work. Creates more value per unit of time than unskilled (simple) labor... Professional education. Dictionary

- (complex work), requiring special training, the worker’s skills, abilities and knowledge to perform certain types of work, compared to unskilled (simple) labor. * * * SKILLED LABOR SKILLED LABOR... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

- (complex work) requiring special training, the worker’s skills, abilities and knowledge to perform certain types of work, compared to unskilled (simple) labor... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Work requiring special preliminary preparation employee, whether he or she has the skills, abilities and knowledge necessary to perform certain types of work. Unlike unskilled (simple) labor, labor force acts as... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• The Adventures of Vavaki, Kalinina Alexandra Nikolaevna. The new book from the children's series "Child" tells in an easy, accessible form about the travels of the dog Vavaki through the cities of the "Golden Ring of Russia" and her adventures in the city of Myauslavl.

Written...

Written...

Written... Simple labor

– this is, firstly, the work of a worker who does not have qualifications, that is, special training or so-called unskilled labor. And, secondly, Simple labor is any part of skilled labor, that is, any labor, including complex labor, can be reduced to certain simple actions, operations, Simple labor. The first concept of Simple Labor determines the level of qualification of a person’s labor, the level of a person’s preparedness in knowledge, skills, experience to perform this or that labor in the creation, production of a particular product. Simple work, unlike complex work, does not require special and lengthy training, and can be carried out by almost any person who has basic physical and mental skills at the elementary or elementary level.. Work that can be produced simply intuitively or after being shown by someone.

Examples of such work could be: the work of a loader without the use of special mechanisms, the work of a janitor, the work of street advertising agents, and so on. In this case, Simple Labor comes down to elementary actions that do not require any special knowledge, skills, much less experience. Of course, Simple work, since it does not require special training and can be performed by almost anyone, the pay for this work is usually very low. From the point of view of payment, simple work is only assessed by the level of conditions in which it is performed and the level of physical costs. So, for example, the work of a loader is paid higher than the work of a street advertising agent simply handing out advertising business cards or brochures. The second concept of Simple Labor determines not so much the level of preparedness of its performer as the work itself, since this concept of Simple Labor, unlike the first concept, where Simple Labor creates some kind of final product (service, work), in this case Simple Labor is only a part of which - complex labor divided into separate operations. This type labor appeared when artisans began to perform not all the required work from start to finish in the manufacture of any product, but only the most important and complex part of it, and outsourced various simple but physically expensive operations to their assistants and apprentices. So, from complex labor, they began to single out work, operations for Simple, unprepared (or poorly prepared) labor, which were performed not by specialists, but by other persons. This division of labor gradually and slowly developed until manufacturing process Manufacture did not come with the beginning of capitalism.

In our time, many operations that were once isolated from the complex labor of an artisan and were Simple labor in the conditions of manufacture, with the advent of machines and various complex equipment, today no longer require the use of Simple, complex labor. In constantly improving and developing production throughout the world, there is also a continuous process of division of labor, the use of increasingly advanced and new technologies, equipment, labor organization, and with them the level of labor productivity increases - all this transforms and the processes of labor itself will change. What was previously Simple labor, for example, with the advent of machines turns into complex labor, and at the same time, what was previously complex labor, with the development of new knowledge and skills by most people, turns into simple, accessible to the majority of Simple labor. This process modifications social labor goes constantly.

It is very important for every person, especially those standing at a crossroads in acquiring future profession First of all, understand what type of work he would like to do? Complex work, requiring a lot of knowledge and skills, Simple, for which the knowledge and skills of the school curriculum are sufficient, or something in between. What are the prospects for your future profession, how will it develop, its need for social production and so on. Of course, in order to achieve anything in life, to self-determinate and be satisfied with your work, you must, of course, focus on difficult work, because only it allows anyone to fully self-realize, to become an ace in their business, no matter what it is. At the same time, we must always remember that any complex work is a certain set of Simple steps, operations, labor. The more baggage of Simple labor you have, the easier it will be for you to achieve success in any complex (professional) work. For example, no scientist can become a scientist if he only knows the basics, the ability to read, write, count, and so on. Therefore, simple work, especially everyday work, has great importance, and requires for our life to master as many (set) of elementary skills as possible, Simple labor.

Good luck with your knowledge of economics!

Workers are involved in the production of goods various qualifications. The work of a worker who does not have any special training is simple labor. Labor that requires special training is complex, or skilled, labor.

Complex labor creates a higher value per unit of time compared to simple labor. The cost of a product created by complex labor also includes part of the labor spent on training the worker. The reduction of all types of complex labor to simple labor is accomplished spontaneously. Complex labor takes on the meaning of multiplied simple labor; an hour of complex labor is equal to several hours of simple labor.

The value of a product is determined by working time. The more time it takes to produce a given product, the higher its cost. It is known that individual commodity producers work in different conditions and spend on the production of identical goods different quantity working hours. Does this mean that the lazier the worker, the less favorable conditions he works in, the higher the cost of the goods will be? No, that doesn't mean it. The value of a commodity is determined not by the individual labor time spent on the production of a commodity by an individual commodity producer, but by socially necessary labor time.

Socially necessary labor time is the time required to produce any product at average social conditions production, that is, with an average level of technology, average skill and labor intensity. Socially necessary working time changes as a result of an increase in labor productivity.

Labor productivity is determined by the amount of products created per unit of working time. Labor productivity increases as a result of improvements or more full use tools of production, development of science, improvement of worker skill, rationalization of labor and other improvements in the production process. The higher labor productivity, the less time required to produce a unit of a given product, the lower the cost of that product.

Labor intensity is determined by labor costs per unit of time. The more labor expended per unit of time, the larger value value created, which is embodied in more goods produced.