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All types of fungi described in this article are mycorrhizal. In other words, they form mycorrhizae (or fungal roots) with certain tree species and live with them for years in a strong symbiosis.

Mushrooms receive organic matter from the tree: carbohydrates in the form of tree sap with sugars, amino acids, some vitamins, growth and other substances they need. With the help of mycorrhiza, the tree extracts nitrogenous products, minerals, phosphorus and potassium, and water.

Mushrooms become attached to certain forest species and cannot live without them. But at the same time, they are very picky: they love well-warmed soil, rich in forest humus.

The development of mushrooms is influenced by many factors: air humidity and temperature, lighting conditions, soil moisture, and so on.

Without their favorite tree species, mycorrhizal fungi do not bear fruit at all. In turn, trees often become weaker and sicker without their mushroom brothers. Thus, larch and pine seedlings that do not have mycorrhiza simply die on nutrient-poor soil. And vice versa, in close collaboration with mushrooms they successfully develop in these same places.

The host tree stimulates the growth of mycelium (mycelium) only if it lacks minerals obtained from the soil. Therefore, porcini mushrooms are more likely to appear on poor sandy soil than on fertile soil. The question arises, how to force Forest mushrooms grow in the garden?

There is only one way - to artificially inoculate mycelium with their green partners. Growing mycorrhizal fungi possible only outdoors and under mycorrhiza-forming trees.

The main thing is to preserve the inseparable pair of mushrooms and trees, without which the full development of a mushroom culture is impossible. This means that it is necessary to create favorable conditions close to those in which these fungi exist in wildlife. To do this, at a minimum, you need the presence of appropriate tree species in your garden - birch, aspen, pine, spruce, larch, and so on.

In addition to cultivating valuable and popular mycorrhizal mushrooms, mushroom growers have repeatedly tried to grow yellow chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius), white milk mushrooms (Russula delica) and true milk mushrooms (Lactarius resimus) in the garden under birch trees, and funnel mushrooms (Craterellus cornucopioides) under several deciduous trees; Polish sucker and chestnut mushrooms; Russula under a variety of tree species and black milk mushrooms under spruce and birch.

PORCINI

The most important trumpet mushroom of the Russian forest is White mushroom(Boletus edulis), otherwise called boletus or ladybird.

It grows from the beginning of June to the end of October in deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests, in parks and gardens, along paths and abandoned roads, on the edges, along the slopes of ditches, in old dugouts and trenches, sometimes in thickets of bushes, after a drought in moss along swamps and drained swamps, but not in the dampest places (under birch, pine, spruce and oak trees); alone and in groups, often, annually.

The cap of the porcini mushroom reaches a diameter of 10 and even 30 cm. In youth it is round, hemispherical, in maturity it is cushion-shaped, in old age it can straighten to prostrate-convex, prostrate and depressed.

The cap is smooth, sometimes wrinkled in dry weather, often matte, shiny, slightly slimy in rain. The edge of the cap is leathery, often acute-angled.

The color of the cap depends on the time of year, humidity and temperature, as well as on the tree species next to which the mycorrhiza mushroom grows and forms: gray-ocher, gray-brown, ocher-brown, brown, chestnut, chestnut-brown, brown-brown and dark brown, lighter towards the edges.

The coloring is often uneven, the cap can be covered with multi-colored or blurry white spots, and in late autumn it can fade to a whitish, gray marbled and greenish color. Young mushrooms grown under fallen leaves or under a birch tree may be uncolored and have a completely white cap.

The tubular layer is finely porous, consisting of free, deeply notched or adherent tubes up to 4 cm long.

In youth it is white, in maturity it is yellow or yellow-greenish, in old age it is yellow-green or olive-yellow, turning brown.

The stalk of the porcini mushroom grows in length up to 10 and even 20 cm, in thickness up to 5 and even 10 cm. In youth it is thick, tuberous, and in maturity it lengthens, becoming club-shaped or widened towards the base.

It is solid, smooth, sometimes wrinkled, white, ocher, brownish or brownish, with a light mesh pattern, which is especially noticeable in the upper part of the leg.

The pulp is fleshy, dense, white, with a pleasant mushroom smell or almost odorless and with a nutty taste. The color does not change when broken.

BOROVIK

Boletus, or white pine mushroom (Boletus pinicola), grows on sandy soils, in green and white moss, in grass in pine forests and in forests mixed with pine from mid-May with a warm and humid spring to early November with a warm autumn. As the latest Carpathian experience shows, it can also grow under other tree species, such as spruce and beech.

The cap of the boletus reaches a diameter of 20 cm. It is very fleshy, hemispherical in youth, convex in maturity, sometimes with a tuberculate surface, and cushion-shaped in old age.

The skin is smooth or velvety, and looks slightly sticky in the rain. The edge is often lighter than the middle, sometimes pinkish.

The color of the cap is burgundy, olive-brown, chestnut-brown, chocolate and dark red-brown, sometimes with a bluish and even purple tint.

Young mushrooms grown under moss may be uncolored and have a whitish or pink cap with a beautiful marbled pattern.

The tubular layer is white in youth, darkens with age to a yellowish, and then yellowish-olive color.

The tubes are up to 4 cm long, but noticeably shorten where they grow to the stem.

The leg of the boletus grows up to 12 cm in length. It is thick, very dense, club-shaped, and has a strong thickening at the base; white, white-pinkish, yellow-pinkish, yellow-brownish or reddish-brown and covered with a noticeable reddish or yellow-brown reticulate pattern.

The pulp is dense, white, reddish under the skin of the cap and stem, does not change color when broken, has a pleasant taste and pungent smell of raw potatoes. ON A NOTE

Porcini mushroom and boletus are considered one of the highest quality, tasty and nutritious mushrooms. They make excellent soups with a light, clear broth, fry, dry (very fragrant), freeze, salt and pickle. At proper drying the flesh remains light in color, unlike moss mushrooms and boletuses.

You can fry without pre-boiling, or just to be on the safe side, boil for about 10 minutes. In some countries Western Europe The porcini mushroom is used raw in salads, but I would protect my stomach from such shocks.

COMMON BORTOWER

One of the most common, most unpretentious, but highly respected trumpet mushrooms is the common boletus (Leccinum scabrum).

The people gave him many names: obabok, grandma, spiker, birch, podgreb and gray mushroom.

Boletus grows in birch forests and forests mixed with birch, under single birch trees in the forest, in bushes and woodlands, including tundra, along roads and ditches, in gardens and on grassy city lawns from mid-May to the first ten days of November, singly and in groups, annually.

The cap of the boletus reaches a diameter of 10 and even 20 cm. In youth it is hemispherical, in maturity it becomes convex or cushion-shaped; usually it is smooth, dry, matte, and slightly sticky in the rain.

The cap is yellow-brown, brownish, gray-brown, brown-brown, chestnut-brown, dark brown and black-brown, sometimes almost white with a pinkish tint and gray, often spotted.

The skin of the cap is not removed during cooking.

The tubes are up to 3 cm long, with a notch at the stem or almost free. The tubular layer in youth is finely porous, whitish and grayish, darkening in maturity to dirty gray or gray-brown, often with whitish spots, convex, spongy, easily separated from the pulp.

The boletus stem grows up to 12 and even 20 cm long, and up to 4 cm thick. It is cylindrical, slightly thinner towards the cap and sometimes noticeably thickens towards the base, hard, solid, whitish with longitudinal whitish fibrous scales, which darken to dark with age. gray, brown, black-brown and even black.

The pulp is watery, dense and tender in youth, rather quickly becomes loose, flabby, and in the stem it turns into hard fibrous. It is white or grayish-white, at the base of the leg it can be yellowish or greenish, does not change color at the break; with a faint pleasant mushroom smell and taste.

Porcini mushrooms and boletus mushrooms compete with each other, so it is better to sow their spores under birch trees on different areas garden Boletus mushrooms have undeniable advantage before noble mushrooms and boletuses - with proper care, its harvests will be more frequent and higher.

With regular watering, boletus mushrooms will appear under birch trees on their own.

When bearing fruit, boletus removes a lot of potassium from the soil. If the garden is not located in potassium-rich lowlands, then at the beginning of each season it is necessary to replenish potassium and other minerals.

To do this, water the soil around the tree with two buckets of solution (at the rate of 10 g of potassium chloride and 15 g of superphosphate per 1 bucket).

When preparing “seed material” from old caps, boletus spores mostly remain mixed with the pulp and do not precipitate well, so you need to use a suspension of their spores along with the pulp.

NOTE

There are more than ten types of boletus, including the more famous ones, such as blackhead, swamp, smoky and pinkish.

Of these, the one most often found in gardens is the not very tasty swamp boletus (Leccinum holopus), which is best collected at a young age and preferably just the caps.

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21.03.2018

Every year the human population on Earth is increasing. If the growth dynamics do not undergo any changes, then the milestone of 8 billion inhabitants of the planet will be overcome in 2024, and scientists from the UN claim that by 2100 the planet's population will already be 11 billion (!) people. Therefore, the problem of food security is already extremely acute for humanity today.

Technologies used in agriculture Currently, the emphasis is mainly on the use of highly effective varieties and the use of produced chemically fertilizers and growth stimulants. However, soon, as most scientists predict, the maximum limit of their effectiveness will be reached, so farmers around the world today are faced with the search for new and non-standard solutions Problems.

One of these solutions is based on the direct use of the capabilities of the earth’s ecosystem, including living microorganisms, organic matter and minerals. Microscopic organisms and fungi are literally right under our feet, and they have enormous potential to bring real benefits and economic benefits to agriculture.

The fact is that all higher plants and fungi are closely interconnected, being elements of one natural system, thus creating a kind of symbiosis that plays a significant role in the life of most cultures.

What is mycorrhiza?

Mycorrhiza or fungal root is a symbiotic association of fungal mycelium with roots higher plants. This term was first introduced by Albert Bernhard Frank back in 1885.

As it turned out, about 90% of all plant varieties existing on earth contain mycorrhiza on their roots, which plays a significant role for their full growth and development.

Currently, agronomists are putting forward a scientifically based theory about the content of a special substance glomalin in the soil, which is a type of plant protein. As it turned out, this substance accumulates in the soil precisely due to mycorrhizal fungi. Moreover, without this substance the existence of plants is generally impossible.

Thanks to mycorrhizae, the absorbing surface of the roots of most plants increases up to 1000 (!) times. At the same time, these mushrooms contribute to a significant improvement of the soil, increase the porosity of the fertile soil layer and improve the process of its aeration.

The fact is that root system plants release glucose, which attracts symbionts or mycorrhiza-forming fungi. Sensitively detecting sugar secretions, the fungi begin to entangle plant roots with their hyphae, creating a mycelium, and even have the ability to penetrate deeply into the crop. The point of this penetration is to be able to transmit to each other nutrients.

By multiplying on the roots of plants, fungi create a mass of thin absorbent threads that have the ability to penetrate into the smallest pores of minerals in the ground, thereby increasing the absorption of nutrients and moisture. Surprisingly, one cubic centimeter can contain mycorrhiza total length threads up to 40 meters (!).

These threads, destroying minerals, extract from the soil the most valuable macro and microelements (for example, phosphorus), which are then supplied to plants.

At the same time, crops infected with the fungus better resist various pathogenic infections, since mycorrhizae stimulate their protective functions.

Varieties of mycorrhiza

There are several varieties of mycorrhiza, but there are two main types:

· Internal (endomycorrhiza). With internal mycorrhiza, fungi are formed directly in the root system of plants, therefore the use of endomycorrhiza is more effective and is already used in agriculture.

More often this type mycorrhizae is found on cultivated garden fruit trees (apple trees, pears, and so on), it can also be found on berries and grain crops, on some types of legumes and vegetables (in particular, tomatoes and eggplants). Endomycorrhiza is also characteristic of most ornamental crops and flowers.

· External or external (ectomycorrhiza). With external mycorrhiza, the fungus entwines the root from the outside, without penetrating inside it, but forming around the roots some formations like a sheath (hyphal mantle).

This type of symbiosis is less effective for use in agriculture, since the exchange of nutrients is mainly one-way, in which the fungus consumes sugars (glucose) synthesized by the plant. Thanks to the influence of special hormones secreted by the fungus, young plant roots begin to branch profusely and thicken.

However, external ectomycorrhiza also provides plants with tangible benefits, helping them to safely survive harsh conditions. winter time, because along with sugars, the fungus also takes excess moisture from the plant.

Most often, external ectomycorrhiza can be found in forests (in oak forests, birch groves, willows, poplars, maples, etc., but it is especially characteristic of coniferous species plants), where fungi create dense mycelium around the root system of trees.

Stages of endomycorrhiza germination

First, fungal spores form special attachments to the root system of plants in the form of growths (suckers), which are called appressoria. Gradually, from these formations, a hypha (a special process coming from the mycelium) begins to penetrate into the root. The hyphae is able to pierce the outer epidermis, thus entering the internal tissues of the root system, where it begins to branch, forming fungal mycelium. Next, the hyphae penetrate into plant cells, where they create arbuscules in the form of complex branches, in which intensive exchange of nutrients occurs.

Arbuscules can exist for several days, and then dissolve, and new arbuscules begin to form instead of old hyphae. This process programmed, controlled by a special set of genes, and represents a hereditary system model responsible for the reconstruction of mycorrhizae.

Mycorrhizae in the service of humans

Due to the fact that mycorrhizae have positive impact on plants, promoting their rapid growth and development, these mushrooms are increasingly used in agriculture, horticulture and forestry.

Alas, scientists have not yet learned to control the process of mycorrhiza behavior, so they are not yet amenable to change and are poorly controlled. However, even today mycorrhizae are actively used by some farms to support the growth and development of plants (especially young ones).

Mycorrhizal fungi are also used on highly depleted soils and in regions experiencing regular problems with irrigation water. In addition, they are effectively used in regions where man-made disasters have occurred, since mushrooms successfully resist various pollution, including extremely toxic ones (for example, mycorrhizae perfectly level out negative impact heavy metals).

Among other things, this type of mushroom perfectly fixes nitrogen and solubilizes phosphorus, transforming it into a more accessible form that is easily absorbed by plants. Of course, this fact affects crop yields, and without the use of expensive fertilizers.

It has been noticed that plants treated with mycorrhiza produce more vigorous shoots, their root system develops better, and their consumer qualities and fruit size. Moreover, all products are exclusively environmentally friendly and natural.

In addition, plants treated with mycorrhiza demonstrate resistance to pathogenic organisms.

Currently, there are a lot of drugs that are used to treat plant seeds that demonstrate a positive effect.

Endomycorrhizal fungi are excellent for improving the nutrition of vegetables, ornamental plants And fruit trees.

The experience of gardeners from the United States, who chose land completely devoid of fertility for planting fruit trees, is especially valuable. The use of mycorrhizal preparations allowed scientists, even under such unfavorable conditions, to create a blooming garden in this place over time.

Beneficial features mycorrhizae

Saves moisture (up to 50%)

· Accumulates useful macro and microelements, thereby improving the growth and development of plants

· Increases the resistance of plants to unfavorable climatic and weather conditions, and also resists salts and heavy metals, eliminating severe soil contamination with toxins

Increases productivity, improves the presentation and taste of fruits

· Helps resist various pathogens and harmful organisms (for example, the mushroom is effective against nematodes). Some varieties of mushrooms can suppress up to 60 varieties of pathogens that cause rot, scab, late blight, fusarium and other diseases

· Increases plant immunity

Helps speed up the flowering process

Accelerates the process of crop survival and has a positive effect on the growth of green mass

In fact, mycorrhizae have existed in nature for 450 million years and are still working effectively to help diversify modern views crops

Mycorrhiza works on the principle of a pump, absorbing water from the soil and extracting useful substances from the soil, and in return, receiving vital carbohydrates. Its spores can spread over tens of meters, covering much large area than ordinary crops can afford. Therefore, thanks to such close cooperation, plants bear fruit better, show resistance to various diseases, and tolerate unfavorable weather conditions and poor soils.

Is mycorrhiza the future? Time will show.

In order to more clearly imagine what mycorrhiza of tree roots looks like externally, it is necessary to compare the appearance of root endings with mycorrhiza with the appearance of roots without it. The roots of Euonymus warty, for example, devoid of mycorrhiza, are sparsely branched and are the same throughout, in contrast to the roots of species that form mycorrhiza, in which the sucking mycorrhizal endings differ from the growth endings that are not mycorrhizal. Mycorrhizal sucking endings either swell club-shaped at the tip in oak, or form very characteristic “forks” and complex complexes of them, reminiscent of corals, in pine, or have the shape of a brush in spruce. In all these cases, the surface of the sucking endings greatly increases under the influence of the fungus. By making a thin section through the mycorrhizal root ending, one can be convinced that the anatomical picture can be even more diverse, i.e., the cover of fungal hyphae entwining the root ending can be different thicknesses and coloring, to be smooth or fluffy, consisting of hyphae so tightly intertwined that it gives the impression of real tissue or, conversely, to be loose.

It happens that the cover consists not of one layer, but of two, differing in color or structure. The so-called Hartig network can also be expressed to varying degrees, i.e. hyphae running along the intercellular spaces and collectively forming something like a network. IN different cases this network may extend to more or fewer layers of root parenchyma cells. The hyphae of the fungus partially penetrate into the cells of the bark parenchyma, which is especially pronounced in the case of mycorrhiza of aspen and birch, and are partially digested there. But no matter how peculiar the picture is internal structure mycorrhizal roots, in all cases it is clear that the fungal hyphae do not penetrate at all into the central cylinder of the root and into the meristem, i.e., into the zone of the root end where root growth occurs due to increased cell division. All such mycorrhizae are called ectoendotrophic, since they have both a surface sheath with hyphae extending from it, and hyphae extending inside the root tissue.

Not all tree species have the types of mycorrhiza described above. In maple, for example, the mycorrhiza is different, that is, the fungus does not form an outer sheath, but in the parenchyma cells you can see not individual hyphae, but entire balls of hyphae, often filling the entire space of the cell. This mycorrhiza is called endotrophic (from the Greek “endos” - inside, and “trophe” - nutrition) and is especially characteristic of orchids. Appearance mycorrhizal endings (shape, branching, depth of penetration) are determined by the type of tree, and the structure and surface of the sheath depend on the type of fungus that forms the mycorrhiza, and, as it turned out, mycorrhiza can simultaneously form not one, but two fungi.

What mushrooms form mycorrhiza and with what species? Resolving this issue was not easy. IN different time Various methods have been proposed for this, including carefully tracing the course of fungal hyphae in the soil from the base of the fruiting body to the root end. The most effective method It turned out that a certain type of fungus was sown under sterile conditions in the soil on which a seedling of a certain tree species was grown, i.e., when mycorrhiza was synthesized under experimental conditions. This method was proposed in 1936 by the Swedish scientist E. Melin, who used a simple chamber consisting of two flasks connected to each other. In one of them, a pine seedling was grown sterilely and a fungus was introduced in the form of mycelium taken from a young fruiting body at the transition of the cap to the stem, and in the other there was liquid for the necessary soil moisture. Subsequently, scientists who continued work on the synthesis of mycorrhiza made various improvements to the structure of such a device, which made it possible to conduct experiments under more controlled conditions and for a longer time.

Using the Melin method, by 1953 the connection between tree species and 47 species of fungi from 12 genera had been experimentally proven. It is now known that mycorrhizae with tree species can form more than 600 species of fungi from such genera as fly agarics, rowers, hygrophores, some laticifers (for example, milk mushrooms), russula, etc., and it turned out that everyone can form mycorrhizae not with one, but with different tree species. In this regard, all records were broken by a marsupial fungus that has sclerotia, Caenococcum granuformis, which under experimental conditions formed mycorrhiza with 55 species of tree species. The sublarch butterfly is characterized by the greatest specialization, forming mycorrhiza with larch and cedar pine.

Some genera of fungi are not capable of forming mycorrhizae - talkers, colibia, omphalia, etc.

And yet, despite such wide specialization, the impact of different mycorrhiza-forming fungi on higher plants is not the same. Thus, in the mycorrhiza of Scots pine formed by the oiler, the absorption of phosphorus from hard-to-reach compounds occurs better than when the fly agaric is involved in the formation of mycorrhiza. There are other facts that confirm this. This is very important to take into account in practice, and when using mycorrhization of tree species for their better development, one should select a mushroom for a particular species that would have the most beneficial effect on it.

It has now been established that mycorrhizal hymenomycetes do not form fruiting bodies in natural conditions without connection with tree roots, although their mycelium can exist saprotrophically. That is why, until now, it was impossible to grow milk mushrooms, saffron milk mushrooms, porcini mushrooms, aspen mushrooms and other valuable species in the garden beds. edible mushrooms. However, in principle this is possible. Someday, even in the near future, people will learn to give the mycelium everything that it receives from cohabitation with the roots of trees, and will force it to bear fruit. In any case, such experiments are being conducted in laboratory conditions.

As for tree species, spruce, pine, larch, fir, and perhaps most other conifers are considered highly mycotrophic, and among deciduous species - oak, beech and hornbeam. Birch, elm, hazel, aspen, poplar, linden, willow, alder, rowan, and bird cherry are weakly mycotrophic. These tree species have mycorrhiza in typical forest conditions, but in parks, gardens and when growing as individual plants they may not have it. In fast-growing species such as poplar and eucalyptus, the absence of mycorrhiza is often associated with their rapid consumption of the resulting carbohydrates during intensive growth, i.e., carbohydrates do not have time to accumulate in the roots, which is a necessary condition for the fungus to settle on them and the formation of mycorrhiza.

What are the relationships between the components in mycorrhiza? One of the first hypotheses about the essence of mycorrhiza formation was proposed in 1900 by the German biologist E. Stahl. It was as follows: in the soil there is fierce competition between various organisms in the struggle for water and mineral salts. It is especially pronounced in the roots of higher plants and fungal mycelium in humus soils, where there are usually a lot of mushrooms. Those plants that had a powerful root system and good transpiration did not suffer much in the conditions of such competition, but those whose root system was relatively weak and transpiration was reduced, i.e. plants that were not able to successfully absorb soil solutions, withdrew difficult situation, forming mycorrhiza with a powerfully developed system of hyphae that penetrate the soil and increase the absorptive capacity of the root. The most vulnerable spot This hypothesis is that there is no direct relationship between water absorption and mineral salt absorption. Thus, plants that quickly absorb and quickly evaporate water are not the most armed in the competition for mineral salts.

Other hypotheses were based on the ability of fungi to act with their enzymes on lignin-protein complexes of the soil, destroy them and make them available to higher plants. Suggestions were also made, which were later confirmed, that the fungus and plant can exchange growth substances and vitamins. Fungi, as heterotrophic organisms that require ready-made organic matter, primarily receive carbohydrates from higher plants. This was confirmed not only by experiments, but also by direct observations. For example, if trees grow in a forest in heavily shaded areas, the degree of mycorrhiza formation is greatly reduced, since carbohydrates do not have time to accumulate in the required quantities in the roots. The same applies to fast-growing tree species. Consequently, in sparse forest plantations mycorrhiza forms better, faster and more abundantly, and therefore the process of mycorrhiza formation can improve during thinning.

Granular oiler - forms mycorrhiza with Scots pine and other pines

Mycorrhiza-formers (symbiotrophic macromycetes, mycorrhizal fungi, symbiotrophs) - fungi that form mycorrhiza on the roots of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. They are a specialized ecological group of fungi, recognized within modern mycology since the late 19th century. This group Fungi are specific in that their representatives enter into symbiosis with higher plants, do not have enzymes for the decomposition of cellulose and lignin, and exhibit energy dependence on the symbiont, which is the plant. The term mycorrhiza (“fungal root”) was introduced by the German mushroom researcher A. W. Frank in 1885.

Mycorrhiza

Mycorrhiza is the formation of a symbiosis of a fungus and a plant. It manifests itself in the fact that the mycelium (mycelium) located in the soil intertwines and envelops the roots and root hairs of plants. The roots of the plant are transformed, but this does not harm the owner. Mycorrhiza allows both the fungus and the plant to obtain missing nutrients from the soil. In modern mycology, a distinction is made between exotrophic and endotrophic mycorrhizae. With exotrophic mycorrhiza (ectomycorrhiza), the hyphae of the mycelium entwine the outside of plant roots, and with endotrophic mycorrhiza (endomycorrhiza), the hyphae penetrate into the intercellular space of the roots and inside the cells of the root parenchyma. Ectoendotrophic mycorrhiza (ectoendomycorrhiza) combines the features of both ectomycorrhiza and endomycorrhiza. The phenomenon was described in 1879-1881. Russian scientist F. M. Kamensky and he also gave the first attempt at it scientific explanation, the term was introduced by the German scientist A. W. Frank in 1885.

Differences between mycorrhiza-formers and saprotrophs

Both mycorrhiza-formers and saprotrophs use dead organic matter for their nutrition, and therefore, within the framework of mycology, there is a problem of distinguishing between these groups.

The mycorrhiza-former receives carbohydrates from the plant, which are used by the fungus as a source of energy, and the plant receives from the fungus elements of mineral nutrition, which the mycelium converts into a form digestible by the plant. At the same time, mycorrhiza-formers are similar to saprotrophs in the absence of a plant with which symbiosis is formed or in the stage of free-living mycelium.

L. A. Garibova in the book “ Mysterious world mushrooms" highlights the following differences, which indicate a difference in the biochemistry of these environmental groups mushrooms:

• only mycorrhiza-formers form indole compounds (some saprotrophs also form them, but in significantly smaller quantities);
• mycorrhiza-formers produce growth substances such as auxins;
• mycorrhiza-formers have almost no antibiotic properties;
• mycorrhiza-formers do not participate in the destruction of cellulose and are not able to develop on it without carbon sources available to them;
• most mycorrhiza-formers do not have hydrolytic enzymes, in particular they do not synthesize laccase, which is needed for the oxidation of lignin;
• mycorrhiza-formers have a more complete amino acid composition.

Symbiotrophs in the fungal kingdom

Boletus is a tubular mushroom that forms mycorrhiza with aspens and other tree species

Red fly agaric - forms mycorrhiza mainly with birch and spruce

Mycorrhiza-formers are ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and zygomycetes.

Thus, mycorrhiza-formers are all tubular (boletal mushrooms), many of which are edible and collected by humans for food consumption: porcini mushrooms, boletus mushrooms, boletus mushrooms, moss mushrooms, oak mushrooms.

Mycorrhiza is formed by some gasteromycetes, mainly of the genus False puffball, as well as some species of marsupial fungi related to truffles (species from the order Truffleaceae ( tuberales)).

In modern mycological literature, there are references to the fact that some mushrooms, for example, thin mushroom and lacquer, can behave both as mycorrhiza-formers and as saprotrophs, depending on habitat conditions. They form mycorrhiza if conditions for trees are unfavorable (swamp, semi-desert, etc.)

The role of mycorrhiza-formers in the biocenosis

The functions of mycorrhiza-formers in the biocenosis, as indicated in the book by L. G. Garibova “The Mysterious World of Mushrooms,” come down to the following:

1. Mycorrhiza formers convert nitrogen-containing compounds in the topsoil into a form that can be absorbed by plants.
2. Mycorrhizal fungi contribute to the supply of phosphorus, calcium and potassium to plants.
3. Mycorrhiza-forming mycelium increases the area of ​​nutrition and water supply for plants. In the arid conditions of deserts and semi-deserts, woody plants receive soil nutrition thanks to mycorrhiza-formers.
4. Protection of plants from pathogenic microorganisms.

Literature

• Burova L. G. The mysterious world of mushrooms - M.: Nauka, 1991.

They occupy a special place in the biology of higher or vascular plants. Mycorrhiza (translated from Greek as mushroom root) arises as a result of the symbiotic cohabitation of a fungus with the root of a higher plant. Mycorrhiza is found among forest trees, herbaceous vegetation and agricultural plants (wheat, etc.). It was found in plants in Paleozoic, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits.

The importance of mycorrhizae for living plants was explained for the first time in Russia in the first half. 19th century Russian scientist F.M. Kamensky, who studied the symbiotic relationship of the fungus with the herbaceous plant podelnik. Thanks to the symbiosis of fungi with roots, the nutrition of plants is improved, which are called mycotrophic due to their ability to use fungi. Based on the relationship between the roots of a higher plant and the mycelium of the fungus, three main types of mycorrhizae are distinguished: endotrophic (internal), ectotrophic (external), transitional (ectoendotrophic).

Most herbaceous plants have endotrophic mycorrhizae. The mycelium of the fungus is located mainly in the upper part of the root; the fungus does not penetrate into the root growth cone. The mycelium of the fungus can penetrate into the cells of root hairs, forming hyphal balls, tree-like branches or bubble-like swellings there. The root cells of the plants in which the fungus has settled remain alive and gradually digest the mycelium that has penetrated them, thus obtaining nitrogen, which is not always present in an accessible form in the soil. Herbaceous plants, especially orchids, enter into a mycorrhizal relationship with microscopic fungi that do not form fruiting bodies. The seeds of most orchids are not able to germinate without the participation of a fungus; this alone explains the failures when trying to artificially propagate orchids. Blooming orchids were obtained in tropical countries, sometimes at great risk to life, and brought to Europe, where they were and still are very expensive. Therefore, the desire of plant growers to grow orchids from seeds to obtain hybrid forms is understandable. When studying the inconspicuous nesting plant, a mycorrhizal orchid plant that does not have chlorophyll, it was noticed that the hyphae of the fungus affect the germination of the seeds of this plant. The nest depends on the fungus for its entire life. Some orchids take 10 or more years to form rhizomes, and only then do they bloom. The green leaf orchid does not have the same vital dependence on mycorrhizae. As a result of the interaction of the plant with the fungus, it produces biologically active substances that enhance plant growth.

The beneficial role of mycorrhiza-forming fungi lies mainly in supplying woody plants with mineral nutrition elements and vitamins. However, in herbaceous plants, other fungi - the so-called imperfect ones - are more often involved in the formation of mycorrhiza. Ectotrophic mycorrhiza is most often found in woody plants and very rarely in herbaceous plants. In this case, an outer sheath of fungal hyphae develops on the roots of woody plants. There are no root hairs at the root; their role is played by fungal hyphae.

In woody plants, mycorrhiza of a transitional type - ectoendotrophy - is also found. The hyphae of the fungus abundantly cover the outside of the root and give off branches that penetrate into the root. The outer hyphae of the fungus draw water, mineral salts, as well as soluble nitrogen and other organic substances from the soil. These substances coming from the soil are partially used by the plant, and some of them go towards the growth of the mycelium and the formation of the fruiting bodies of the fungus. There are no mycorrhizal fungi in the vital growing parts of the root (cylinder): if they get there, they are immediately digested by the plant cells. Mycorrhizal symbionts cannot exist without each other. If mycorrhizal fungi do not encounter tree roots, they will not form fruiting bodies. Therefore, it is very difficult to create the opportunity to grow, for example, porcini mushrooms under artificial conditions.

In the numerous species kingdom of fungi, mycorrhizal fungi are only a small part of it. For example, among 900 genera of basidiomycetes, only representatives of 91 genera are capable of producing mycorrhizal formations. Currently, there are about 200 thousand higher plants that come into contact with mycorrhizal fungi. The most favorable conditions for the development of mycorrhizae are in soils depleted of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus. In soils where there is enough phosphorus and nitrogen, mycorrhiza almost never occurs.

Boletus fungi form mycorrhizae with many higher plants, sometimes systematically distant from each other, for example, with conifers and deciduous plants. Sometimes in different places habitats, mycorrhiza-formers have mycotrophic relationships with various tree species, for example, the common oiler in the Leningrad region - with pine species, and in Sakhalin - with other trees. The mycorrhizal mushroom red fly agaric is associated with 26 species of trees - fir, larch, spruce, pine, birch, poplar, oak, etc.

Almost all soils of the Soviet Union are suitable for mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhiza formation is sometimes observed in places far from the forest, and where the forest has not grown for a long time. The process of mycorrhiza formation in our northern podzolic soils is particularly intense.

Mycorrhizal fungi are of great importance when planting forest shelterbelts. Artificial forest plantations create favorable conditions for preserving moisture in the steppe part of the country, and this affects the increase in agricultural yields. Clarification of the role of mycorrhizae in the survival and development of tree species in various climatic conditions of our country is still one of the most important tasks mycology. For example, it is known that in the southern regions the formation of mycorrhizae is weaker than in the northern ones, and artificial infection of forest plantations is recommended there. The protection of fungi that form mycorrhizae is necessary for successful forestry. There are many such mushrooms in the Leningrad region.

It should be noted that there is one more natural phenomenon that affects the development of mycorrhizae in the soil. Currently, the growth of many tree species has slowed down compared to the 1930s and 1950s due to so-called acid rain, which contains products released into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises. Acidic compounds kill mycorrhizal fungi on tree roots, and after the fungus dies, the trees themselves die. The negative effects of acid rain have been noted here in the USA, Japan and other countries.

Many types of mycorrhizal fungi are edible. They are not only tasty and aromatic, but also nutritious. Mushrooms do not contain plant starch, but they do contain glycogen and sugars, which give them a sweetish taste. There is especially a lot of sugar in white, boletus, and boletus. There is more sugar in the stems of mushrooms than in the caps. The amount of protein compounds in mushrooms is greater than in meat, eggs, peas, and rye. They are concentrated mainly in the mushroom cap. Fat content ranges from 1 to 6%. Almost all edible mushrooms, as already noted, contain vitamins A, B, B 1 B 2, C, D and PP. They contain as much vitamin PP as there is in yeast and liver, and vitamin D is no less than in butter.

Based on nutritional value and taste, mushrooms are conventionally divided into four categories. The first category includes, for example, porcini, saffron milk caps - valuable and tasty mushrooms; to the second - boletus, boletus, milk mushrooms - inferior in quality to mushrooms of the first category; to the third - blue russula, autumn honey fungus, moss fly; The fourth category includes mushrooms that are collected only by amateurs - these are oyster mushrooms (common, autumn), goat mushroom, green russula, marsh buttercup. All mushrooms of these categories are available in our region.

Leningrad mycologist B.P. Vasilkov believes that in the regions of the North-West, Volga region, Urals and Center, the annual reserves of edible mushrooms amount to more than 150 thousand tons. More than 200 species of edible mushrooms are found in Russian forests. Science cannot yet predict exactly where and when the mushroom harvest will be. The mushroom harvest depends on the weather of the current season, habitat and type of mushroom. According to available information, the yield of porcini mushroom under favorable growing conditions reaches about 500 kg, and butterdish - even 1 thousand kg per 1 hectare. In lean years, you can get only a few kilograms from 1 hectare or none at all.

Nothing. In some years, mushrooms are destroyed by pests from the insect world (larvae of flies, mosquitoes, etc.).

The range of edible mushrooms collected in each region is different. In the UK and USA, wild mushrooms are not used at all. The peoples of the Far North also almost never eat mushrooms. Peoples are indifferent to mushrooms Central Asia, Caucasus, as well as Bashkirs and Tatars. Russians, on the contrary, big fans mushrooms In good years they collect valuable mushrooms, and in lean years they collect all edible species.

The most interesting group is boletaceae, which includes all types of porcini mushrooms and inedible ones - satanic mushroom and gall mushroom. This also includes birch trees (obabka), aspen trees, boletus and goats. The sizes of the fruiting bodies of these mushrooms can vary depending on the place of growth - from 1-2 cm in diameter (birch in the Arctic) to half a meter in middle lane Russia, and by weight - from a few grams to 4 kg. The most common sizes are medium - up to 20 cm in diameter. The stems of fruiting bodies of the same species may differ depending on the place of growth (as well as the color of the cap). In low damp places, among mosses and herbaceous plants, the legs stretch out. and in dry places they are usually short and thickened. Cohabiting with one tree species or many tree species, sometimes systematically distant from each other, mycorrhizal fungi in some cases can apparently develop as saprotrophs (isolated from tree roots). For example, a white mushroom was found on top of a huge boulder in a pine forest.

In the Leningrad region, boletus mushrooms are less diverse than in central Russia, and in the Arctic tundra only 3-4 species are known. Mass formation of fruiting bodies in boletus fungi is most often observed in August - September. Many types of boletus fungi are mycorrhiza-formers, so it is not possible to artificially obtain fruiting bodies from them, with the exception of two types of moss mushrooms. Among the boletus mushrooms in the Leningrad region, there are very few inedible ones; about 3-4 species are known. The satanic mushroom (boletus satanas) is especially often mentioned in literature as poisonous, but, according to French and Czechoslovak literature, it is a completely edible, and even tasty (boiled and fried) mushroom.

In the Leningrad region, many people are afraid of bright porcini mushrooms that turn blue at the break. However, it is quite possible to use them after preliminary boiling.

Some types of boletus mushrooms contain antibiotic substances in their fruiting bodies (spruce porcini mushroom). These substances have a negative effect on E. coli and tuberculosis microbes. Substances isolated from the white mushroom (boletus edulis) and satanic mushroom suppressed malignant tumors in mice. In the past, in Rus', mushrooms were called lips, and only in the 15th-16th centuries did they begin to call all edible boletus mushrooms. Currently, mushrooms have many popular names (boletus, obabok, butterdish, flywheel, etc.), but some species do not have such names, and in popular literature they are designated by their Latin name.

There are 750 known species of the genus Bolethus. The fruiting body of these mushrooms is usually large and fleshy. The stalk is tuberous, thickened, especially in young ones, with a characteristic relief mesh pattern. The porcini mushroom, the most nutritionally valuable of the mushrooms in the Leningrad region, has several forms, differing in the color of the fruiting body and mycorrhizal association. The cap is whitish, yellow, brownish, yellow-brown, red-brown or even almost black. The spongy layer in young specimens is pure white, later yellowish and yellowish-olive. The leg has a light mesh pattern. The flesh is white at the break, does not change. It grows under many tree species in the Leningrad region: under oak, birch, pine, spruce, but is never found under larch. The mushroom is called porcini because its flesh does not darken when cooked and prepared.

Olive-brown oakweed (Boletus luridus) is found in the Leningrad region. Its cap is olive-brown, the spongy layer is orange-red and turns sharply blue when pressed. There is a mesh pattern on the leg. Grows mainly with oak. There are practically no inedible satanic mushrooms similar to this oak mushroom in the Leningrad region. Speckled oakweed is also very rare among us. It resembles olive-brown, but does not have a reticulate pattern on the stem, instead there are only small carmine-red scales.

The boletus mushroom grows in deciduous and mixed forests. It occurs very often from June - July to September. The cap is up to 10 cm in diameter, at first convex, later cushion-shaped, white, yellow, gray, brown, brown, sometimes almost black. The pulp is white, unchanged when cut. The leg is up to 20 cm long, 2-3 cm thick, covered with dark scales. Edible, second category. The common boletus is best known in the Leningrad region. This species always settles next to birch trees of various types in forests and swamps. The pink boletus differs from the common boletus in the marbled color of its cap. Its brown areas alternate with lighter or even white ones. At the break the flesh turns pink. The fruiting bodies of this mushroom are formed only in autumn. The boletus boletus grows in damp birch forests in the first half of September; the cap is dirty white, with weak, watery pulp. The mushroom belongs to the third category. The inedible gall mushroom is very similar to the boletus mushroom, which differs from it in its dirty pink tubular layer, a mesh pattern on the stalk and bitter pulp.

The Polish mushroom (xerocomus badius) is often found in the Leningrad region. The stalk can be either tuberous or cylindrical; the cap is chestnut-brown, dry in dry weather, and sticky in damp weather; the tubular layer is first whitish (as a result of this it is often mistaken for a porcini mushroom), then pale greenish-yellowish; The flesh is whitish, turns blue at the break. Grows in coniferous, less often in deciduous forests. This is an edible mushroom and belongs to the second category.

The butterdish (suillus) is found in coniferous forests, and it is in vain to look for it in an aspen or birch forest. The fruiting bodies are small or medium-sized, the cap is usually mucous, sticky, the stem is solid. The yellow oiler (Suillus luteus) is found more often than other species in the Leningrad region. It has a brown or yellow sticky cap and a stem with a sticky ring on the outside. It grows in sparse coniferous forests, on forest edges, roadsides, etc. The favorite places of the yellowish oiler (suillus flavidus) are swamps and damp areas of the forest. It should not be confused with the inedible species - pepper mushroom (suillus pipyratus), its flesh is loose, sulfur-yellow, slightly reddening, with a pungent peppery taste; grows singly in coniferous and deciduous forests. The cap is small, up to 8 cm in diameter, round-convex, fleshy, yellow-brown, copper-red, sticky in wet weather, shiny in dry weather.

In cultivated larch plantations in the Leningrad region, boletin boletin (boletin raluster) is found; it is very similar to butterdish, but differs from it in its dry, non-sticky cap and denser pulp.

Known among herds and pigs. These are saprotrophs that develop on soil or wood. On or near pine stumps grows a thick pigwort with a rusty-brown cap and dryish light flesh. From below, the caps of the plates are descending, yellow, connecting at the base. Low-quality mushroom (fourth category).

Not all edible and poisonous mushrooms are mycorrhiza-formers. Such, for example, is the autumn honey fungus (Armillariella melea). Many honey mushrooms appear in mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. Autumn honey fungus is an edible mushroom; it surpasses all edible cap mushrooms in terms of the number of fruiting bodies. Like other edible cap mushrooms, it contains many substances valuable for the human body, such as zinc and copper. The cap of this mushroom has a small tubercle, pale brown, brownish, covered with numerous brown scales. On the. the leg has a white ring that persists. The pulp is whitish, with pleasant smell and sourish-astringent taste. A common species is the summer honey fungus (Marasmius ariadis), which is also found in the Leningrad region. It grows singly or in large groups in forest clearings, forest edges, pastures, in ravines and ditches, among grass. Often forms “witch circles”. The radial growth of the mycelium dries out the soil in the center of the circle, and therefore on both sides of the ring of fruiting bodies there are circles of more luxuriantly developed and succulent vegetation, and in the center there is dried grass. The cap of this mushroom is 2 - 3 cm in diameter, prostrate, with a blunt tubercle, ocher-brown. The plates are rare, fawn. The leg is thin, fawn. The pulp is pale yellow.

The poisonous mushroom, sulfur-yellow false honey fungus, is very similar to the edible honey fungus. This dangerous mushroom can grow on the same stumps as edible honey mushrooms. The cap of the false foam is first convex, then half-spread, often with a bump in the center, yellowish, darker in the middle with a reddish or orange tint. The pulp is light yellow. The taste of the mushroom is bitter. It grows on stumps and occasionally on trees in large groups, often with legs fused together. It appears at the same time, from June to September, as edible honey mushrooms, sometimes on the same stumps. Therefore, you need to be especially careful and carefully examine all mushrooms.

Found in our forests and different kinds russula (russula), saffron milk caps (lactarius), bitters. These mushrooms are mycorrhiza-formers. Most of them are edible (categories three and four). In wet years, russula are especially numerous in the Leningrad region. They belong to the Russula family, which also includes laticifers, which secrete milky sap of various colors. For example, in camelina this juice is orange-yellow, in black milk mushroom and bitter mushroom it is white. Russulas do not have milky juice. These mushrooms have colored fruiting bodies. Some of them are also poisonous.

Russulas make up 45% of the mass of all mushrooms found in our forests. The best mushrooms are those that have less red, but more green, blue and yellow. Blue russula has white, odorless flesh. The leg is first solid, later hollow. Russula has yellow flesh with a sweet smell. False russula has white, spongy, very brittle flesh with a pungent taste. The marsh russula has a red cap, brownish in the middle. Prefers damp pine forests, edges of swamps, forms mycorrhiza with soybean. Among the milkweeds we have the camelina (Lactarius diliciosis), its cap is rounded-convex and has concentric zones. The flesh is orange, then turns green. The milky juice is orange-yellow, sweet, and turns green in the air. Camelina is an edible mushroom of the first category. Black milk mushroom (Lactarius necator) grows in birch and mixed forests. It has brittle, whitish flesh that darkens when broken.

The most famous edible mushroom is the chanterelle. Chanterelle belongs to the agaric mushrooms; About 10 species are found in the country. Chanterelles contain vitamin B[ (no less than yeast) and PP; in addition, they have trace elements - zinc and copper. In the Leningrad region, yellow chanterelle (Cantarellus cibarius) and gray chanterelle are known.

The Amanitaceae family consists of both deadly poisonous (pale toadstool, stinking fly agaric) and edible mushrooms, including the pink fly agaric and various varieties of floaters.

About 30 representatives of the Amish genus are found in the country. All fungi of this genus form mycorrhizae with various tree species. The pale grebe (Amanita phalloides) has a cap of different shades of green. The edge of the cap is smooth, its shape is bell-shaped, then prostrate, with a diameter of 5-10 cm. The stem is white, expanded at the base in the form of a tuber, the ring on the outside is slightly striped, white, slightly colored on the inside. The toadstool-like fly agaric, which looks like a pale toadstool, almost always has traces of a common blanket on its cap in the form of white flakes. Old, dried toadstool mushrooms have an unpleasant, sweetish odor. The habitats of the pale grebe are damp areas under oak, birch, and maple trees, i.e., in deciduous forests. In the Leningrad region, the pale grebe is found in groups and alone. This mushroom usually appears en masse in mid-August and grows until October. Pale toadstool is the most poisonous mushroom. Poisoning appears 10-12, and sometimes 30 hours after eating it, when it is almost impossible to save a person. The deadly toxin of this mushroom is phalloidin.

The stinking fly agaric, or white toadstool (amanita viroza), is widespread in the Leningrad region. This is a large mushroom with a white, slightly yellowish cap at the top. The cap is without scales, bell-shaped, up to 12 cm in diameter. The leg is quite large, white, with a ring just under the cap; The scales make it feel rough. The smell is unpleasant. This species grows in coniferous and mixed forests, easily tolerates humidity and dry conditions, and as a result is more common in our country than the toadstool. Cap flesh in large quantities contains the toxins amanite and virosine, the leg contains less of these deadly toxins.

The red fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) is widespread in the Leningrad region. The mushroom cap is red or orange-red, at first sticky, then shiny. On the cap there are remnants of a white blanket in the form of white flakes. The leg is white, the ring is smooth, white, sometimes slightly yellowish. The base of the leg is swollen, covered with fragments of white vagina in the form of concentric rings. About 15 days pass from the appearance of the fruiting body to its drying. The red fly agaric contains alkaloids (muscarine, choline) and other toxic substances that are highly stimulating. nervous system. They determine the hallucinogenic properties of the red fly agaric. A person who eats a piece of red fly agaric goes into a state of ecstasy and hallucinates.

So, all edible mushrooms are a high-calorie protein product that can compete with meat and dairy products. However, the cell wall of fungi contains the carbohydrate polymer chitin, which is difficult to digest in the human stomach. In addition, the chitinous membrane of fungal cells impedes the flow of enzymes. Therefore, the more the mushrooms are crushed, the more beneficial substances are extracted from them.

Is it possible to artificially breed mushrooms? personal plot? Mycologist F.V. Fedorov talks about successful attempts to grow the most nutritious mushrooms - white mushrooms. This is what he recommends: “On an area shaded by trees, dig a pit 30 cm deep and 2 m wide. It is filled with a nutrient mixture special staff. The mixture is prepared a month before laying. It consists of fallen oak leaves collected in the spring, rotten oak wood (5% by weight of leaves) and clean horse manure without litter (5% by weight of leaves). The leaves are placed in a heap in layers of 20 cm, each layer is sprinkled with wood dust and horse manure and watered with a 1% solution of ammonium nitrate. After 7-10 days, when the mixture warms up to 35-40°, it is shoveled until a homogeneous mass is obtained. The prepared nutrient mixture is placed in a pit in layers of 10 - 12 cm, sprinkling each layer with an eight-centimeter layer of garden soil. The total thickness of the poured soil is increased to 50 cm. In the middle, the bed is made slightly higher so that water does not linger on it. Planting is carried out with pieces of mycelium taken from the forest. The planting holes are placed in a checkerboard pattern, at a distance of 30 cm from each other. The mycelium is harvested in the oak forest, in places where porcini mushrooms grow (oak form). Around the found mushroom, layers of soil 20-30 cm in size and 10-15 cm thick are cut out with a shovel. These layers are cut into 5-10 parts and planted to such a depth that there is a layer of soil 5-7 cm thick above the piece of wood. Beds with mycelium plantings lightly moistened, covered with leaves and shields to maintain constant moisture." Mushrooms appear next year."