"Green Revolution" and its consequences. Green revolutions
What is the green revolution, its significance and consequences? How does the green revolution relate to the use of fertilizers and pesticides?
The concept of “Green Revolution” dates back to the middle of the 20th century, give or take a decade. Primarily characteristic of the West, it means a chain of quite significant changes in agriculture, as a result of which the share of world agricultural production has increased several times.
The green revolution took place in a number of developing countries literally before the eyes of one generation. The introduction of new, more productive plant varieties, the expansion of irrigation, the use of new types of fertilizers, pesticides and modern agricultural machinery - all that the revolution gave agro-industrial complex planets.
The term Green Revolution itself was introduced former director USAID William Goud in 1968, when half the world was reaping the labors of this process.
It all started in 1943 in Mexico. It was there that the agricultural program of the Mexican government and the Rockefeller Foundation gained great scope, thanks to which the development of innovations for Agriculture. The most prominent agricultural scientist of that time was Norman Borlaug, who developed several highly effective varieties of wheat. One of them, with a short stem (9 which protects wheat from lodging) is used for crops to this day. Thus, by the mid-50s, Mexico was 100% self-sufficient in grain and was able to begin exporting it. The fact that grain yields have increased 3 times in 15 years is entirely the merit of the Green Revolution. The developments used in Mexico were adopted by Colombia, India, and Pakistan. Norman Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970.
The Green Revolution continued to spread around the world, mainly among developing countries. Thus, in 1963, on the basis of Mexican research institutions, the International Center for the Improvement of Wheat and Corn Varieties (CIMMYT) was created, which carried out breeding work with the best varieties, significantly improving their productivity and survival.
The advantages of the Green Revolution are obvious: thanks to it, the growing population of the Earth remained well-fed, and the quality of life in some areas increased noticeably, because the number of calories in food consumed per day increased by developing countries by 25%.
The disadvantages began to clearly appear a little later. Due to the spread mineral fertilizers and pesticides, environmental problems began to arise more and more often. The intensification of agriculture has disrupted water regime soils, which caused large-scale salinization and desertification.
Copper and sulfur preparations, which cause soil contamination with heavy metals, were replaced by aromatic, heterocyclic, chlorine- and organophosphorus compounds(karbofos, dichlorvos, DDT, etc.).
They have an effect in much lower concentrations, which makes it possible to reduce costs for chemical treatment. But many of them turned out to be unpredictably stable and did not decompose in nature for several years.
A striking example of such a drug is DDT. This substance was later found even in animals in Antarctica, thousands of kilometers from the nearest places where this chemical was used.
And another consequence of the Green Revolution is rapid globalization and the capture of the markets for seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and agricultural equipment in developing countries by American companies.
In the 60-70s. XX century A new concept has entered the international lexicon - the “green revolution”, which relates primarily to developing countries. This is a complex, multicomponent concept, which in the most general terms can be interpreted as the use of the achievements of genetics, selection and plant physiology to develop varieties of crops, the cultivation of which, under the conditions of appropriate agricultural technology, opens the way to more complete utilization of photosynthesis products. By the way, a similar evolution was carried out much earlier in developed countries of the world (since the 30s of the 20th century - in the USA, Canada, Great Britain, since the 50s - in Western Europe, Japan, New Zealand). However, at that time it was called the industrialization of agriculture, based on the fact that it was based on its mechanization and chemicalization, although in combination with irrigation and selective breeding. And only in the second half of the 20th century, when similar processes affected developing countries, did the name “green revolution” firmly establish itself behind them.
The Green Revolution has spread to more than 15 countries in a belt stretching from Mexico to Korea. It is clearly dominated by Asian countries, and among them are countries with very large or fairly large population, where wheat and/or rice serve as the main food crops. Fast growth their population led to an even greater increase in pressure on arable land, which was already severely depleted. With extreme land scarcity and landlessness, the predominance of small and tiny peasant farms with low agricultural technology, more than 300 million families in these countries in the 60-70s. XX century were either on the verge of survival or experiencing chronic hunger. That is why the “green revolution” was perceived by them as a real attempt to find a way out of their critical situation.
The Green Revolution in developing countries includes three main components .
The first of them is the development of new varieties of agricultural crops . For this purpose, in the 40-90s. XX century 18 international research centers were created, specifically engaged in the study of various agricultural systems represented in the countries of the developing world. Their locations are as follows: Mexico (corn, wheat), Philippines (rice), Colombia (tropical food crops), Ivory Coast (rice) West Africa), Peru (potatoes), India (dry tropical food crops), etc.
The second component of the “green revolution” is irrigation . It is especially important because new varieties of grain crops can realize their potential only under conditions of good water supply. Therefore, with the beginning of the “green revolution” in many developing countries, especially Asian ones, they began to pay especially much attention to irrigation
In general, the share of irrigated land is now 19%, but it is in the areas of the “green revolution” that it is much higher: in South Asia - about 40, and in East Asia and in the Middle East - 35%. As for individual countries, the world leaders in this indicator are Egypt (100%), Turkmenistan (88%), Tajikistan (81) and Pakistan (80%). In China, 37% of all cultivated land is irrigated, in India - 32, in Mexico - 23, in the Philippines, Indonesia and Turkey - 15-17%.
The third component of the “green revolution” is the industrialization of agriculture itself, i.e., the use of machines, fertilizers, plant protection products . In this regard, not much progress has been made by developing countries, including the countries of the Green Revolution. This can be demonstrated by the example of agricultural mechanization. Back in the early 1990s. in developing countries, 1/4 of the arable land was cultivated manually, 1/2 with draft power, and only 1/4 with tractors. Although the tractor fleet of these countries increased to 4 million vehicles, all of them taken together had fewer tractors than the United States (4.8 million).
However, statistics indicate that over the past two to three decades, the tractor fleet in foreign Asia (primarily in India and China) has increased several times, and Latin America- two times. Therefore, the order of large regions in terms of the size of this park has also changed and now looks like this: 1) foreign Europe; 2) foreign Asia; 3) North America.
Developing countries also lag behind in terms of chemicalization of agriculture. Suffice it to say that on average 60-65 kg of mineral fertilizers are applied per 1 hectare of arable land, while in Japan - 400 kg, in Western Europe - 215, in the USA - 115 kg.
Consequences of the green revolution:
The positive consequences of the Green Revolution are undeniable. The main thing is that in a relatively short period of time it led to an increase in food production - both in general and on a per capita basis. According to FAO, in 11 countries of East, Southeast and South Asia, the area under rice increased by only 15%, and its harvest increased by 74%; similar data for wheat for 9 countries in Asia and North Africa - minus 4% and 24%. All this led to some easing of the severity of the food problem and the threat of famine. India, Pakistan, Thailand, Indonesia, China, and some other countries have reduced or completely stopped grain imports. And yet, the story about the successes of the “green revolution” must, apparently, accompanied by some caveats.
The first such clause concerns its focal nature, which, in turn, has two aspects. First, according to data from the mid-1980s, new high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice are distributed on only 1/3 of the 425 million hectares occupied by grain crops in developing countries. Secondly, the catalysts of the “green revolution” can be considered three grain crops - wheat, rice and corn, while it had a much weaker effect on millet, leguminous and industrial crops. The situation with leguminous crops, which are widely used as food in most countries, is especially alarming. Due to their high nutritional value, they are even called tropical meat.
Second caveat concerns the social consequences of the Green Revolution. Since the use of modern agricultural technology requires significant capital investment, its results were primarily used by landowners and wealthy peasants (farmers), who began to buy land from the poor in order to then squeeze out as much income as possible from it. The poor do not have the means to buy cars, fertilizers, varieties, or sufficient plots of land. Many of them were forced to sell their land and either became farm laborers or joined the population of the “poverty belts” in big cities. Thus, the “green revolution” led to increased social stratification in the countryside, which is increasingly developing along the capitalist path.
Finally, third clause concerns some unwanted environmental consequences"green revolution". These primarily include land degradation. Thus, approximately half of all irrigated land in developing countries is susceptible to salinization due to ineffective drainage systems. Soil erosion and loss of fertility have already led to the destruction of 36% of irrigated crop areas in Southeast Asia, 20 in Southwest Asia, 17 in Africa and 30% in Central America. The advance of arable land into forest areas continues. In some countries, the intensive use of agricultural chemicals also poses a major threat to environment(especially along the rivers of Asia, the waters of which are used for irrigation) and human health.
The attitude of developing countries themselves towards these environmental problems not the same, and their capabilities are different. In countries where there are no clearly defined land ownership rights and little economic incentive to implement environmental measures in agriculture, where, due to poverty, scientific and technical capabilities are severely limited, where a population explosion continues to be felt, and tropical nature is also particularly vulnerable, it is difficult to expect any positive changes in the foreseeable future. Developing countries in the “upper echelon” have much greater opportunities to avoid undesirable environmental consequences. It is believed, for example, that many rapidly developing Asia-Pacific countries can not only quickly and effectively introduce new equipment and technology into agriculture, but also adapt them to their natural conditions.
Almost all of our traditional foods are the result of natural mutations and genetic transformations that serve driving forces evolution. Fortunately, from time to time, Mother Nature takes charge and makes genetic modifications, often, as they say, “in a big way.” Thus, wheat, which plays such a significant role in our modern diet, acquired its current qualities as a result of unusual (but quite natural) crosses between different types of grasses. Today's wheat bread is the result of the hybridization of three different plant genomes, each containing a set of seven chromosomes. In this sense, wheat bread should be classified as transgenic or genetically modified (GM) products. Another result of transgenic hybridization is modern corn, which most likely appeared due to the crossing of two species. Hundreds of generations of farmers have helped accelerate genetic transformation through regular selection using the most fertile and vigorous plants and animals. Over the past 100 years, scientists have been able to apply their dramatically expanded knowledge of genetics and plant physiology in order to significantly speed up the process of combining high plant productivity with high resistance to negative environmental factors.
The expression “green revolution” was first used in 1968 by the director of the US Agency for International Development, V. Goud, trying to characterize the breakthrough achieved in food production on the planet due to the widespread distribution of new high-yielding and low-growing varieties of wheat and rice in Asian countries that suffered from food shortages. food. Many journalists then sought to describe the “green revolution” as a massive transfer of advanced technologies developed in the most developed and consistently high-yielding agricultural systems to the fields of peasants in the “third world” countries. But more importantly, it marked the beginning new era development of agriculture on the planet, an era in which agricultural science was able to offer a range of improved technologies in accordance with the specific conditions characteristic of farming in developing countries.
Critics of the Green Revolution tried to focus public attention on the excessive abundance of new varieties, the development of which was supposedly becoming an end in itself, as if these varieties alone could provide such miraculous results. Certainly, modern varieties allow you to increase the average yield due to more efficient ways of growing plants and caring for them, due to their greater resistance to insect pests and major diseases. However, they only allow you to get a noticeably larger harvest when they are provided with proper care and agrotechnical practices are carried out in accordance with the calendar and the stage of plant development (fertilization, watering, soil moisture control and pest control). All these procedures remain absolutely necessary for transgenic varieties obtained in recent years. Moreover, radical changes in plant care and improved crop production become simply necessary if farmers begin cultivating modern high-yielding varieties. The application of fertilizers and regular watering, which are so necessary for obtaining high yields, simultaneously create favorable conditions for the development of weeds, insect pests and the development of a number of common plant diseases. So additional measures to control weeds, pests and diseases are inevitable when introducing new varieties.
Agricultural intensification has an impact on the environment and causes certain social problems. However, it is possible to judge the harm or benefit of modern technologies (including crop production) only taking into account the rapid growth of the Earth's population. For example, the population of Asia has more than doubled in 40 years (from 1.6 to 3.5 billion people). What would it be like to have an extra 2 billion people if it weren't for the Green Revolution? Although agricultural mechanization has led to a decline in the number of farms (and in this sense contributed to increased unemployment), the benefits of the Green Revolution, associated with manifold increases in food production and a steady decline in bread prices in almost all countries of the world, are much more significant for humanity.
And yet, a number of problems (primarily soil salinization, as well as pollution of soils and surface water bodies, largely due to the excessive use of fertilizers and chemical plant protection products) require serious attention from the entire world community. Despite the significant successes of the Green Revolution, the battle for food security for hundreds of millions of people in the poorest countries is far from over. The rapid growth of the population of the “Third World” as a whole, even more dramatic changes in demographic distributions in certain regions, and ineffective programs to combat hunger and poverty in many countries “ate up” most of the achievements in the field of food production. For example, in the countries of Southeast Asia, food production is still clearly insufficient to overcome hunger and poverty, while China has made a colossal leap. Nobel laureate in economics, Professor Amartya Sen, is inclined to attribute China's tremendous successes in the fight against hunger and poverty (in particular, in comparison with India) to the fact that the Chinese leadership allocates huge funds to education and health care, primarily in the backward agricultural areas of the country. With a healthier and better educated rural population, China's economy has been able to grow twice as fast as India's over the past 20 years. Today, China's average per capita income is almost twice that of India.
In many other parts of the developing world (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa and the inland highlands of Asia and Latin America), the technologies brought to the fields by the Green Revolution are still beyond the reach of most farmers. Moreover, the main reason for this is not their unsuitability for the conditions of these regions, as some believe. Developed by the Sasakawa Association in 2000, the global agricultural modernization program has already provided significant assistance to smallholder farmers in 14 African countries. Under this program, over a million demonstration plots ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 hectares are planted with corn, sorghum, wheat, rice and legumes. Throughout these areas, the average yield is 2–3 times higher than in traditionally cultivated fields.
The main obstacle to agricultural intensification in Africa is that market costs are arguably the highest in the world. To facilitate agricultural production, efficient transport is needed to enable farmers to get their produce to markets in a timely manner.
With the failures of the Third World countries and international organizations, contributing to their development, in attempts to achieve an adequate return on investment in agriculture is not easy to come to terms with, since throughout history not a single nation has been able to increase prosperity and achieve economic development without first sharply increasing food production, the main source of which has always been agriculture . Therefore, according to many experts, in the 21st century. a second “green revolution” is coming. Without this, it will not be possible to ensure human existence for everyone who comes into this world.
Fortunately, yields of major food crops are continually improving through improved tillage, irrigation, fertilization, weed and pest control, and reduced harvest losses. However, it is already clear that significant efforts will be required, both through traditional breeding and modern agricultural biotechnology, to achieve genetic improvement in food plants at a pace that would meet the needs of 8.3 billion people by 2025. For further growth in agricultural production, a lot of fertilizers will be needed, especially in the countries of Equatorial Africa, where no more than 10 kg of fertilizers per hectare are still applied (tens of times less than in developed countries and even in developing countries in Asia).
Massive use of fertilizers began after the Second World War. Particularly widespread are inexpensive nitrogen fertilizers based on synthetic ammonia, which have become an integral attribute of modern crop production technologies (today more than 80 million tons are consumed annually in the world nitrogen fertilizers). According to experts who study nitrogen cycles in nature, at least 40% of the 6 billion people currently inhabiting the planet are alive only thanks to the discovery of ammonia synthesis. Apply this amount of nitrogen to the soil using organic fertilizers It would be completely unthinkable even if we all did just that.
Recombinant DNA allows breeders to select and introduce genes into plants “one by one”, which not only sharply reduces research time compared to traditional breeding, eliminating the need to spend it on “unnecessary” genes, but also makes it possible to obtain “useful” genes from the most different types plants. This genetic transformation promises enormous benefits for agricultural producers, particularly by increasing plant resistance to insect pests, diseases and herbicides. Additional benefits are associated with the development of varieties that are more resistant to a lack or excess of moisture in the soil, as well as to heat or cold - the main characteristics of modern forecasts of future climate disasters. Finally, the consumer can also benefit greatly from biotechnology, since new varieties have higher nutritional properties and other health characteristics. And this will happen in the next 10–20 years!
Despite the desperate opposition to transgenic plants in certain circles, new varieties are quickly gaining popularity among growers. This is an example of the most rapid dissemination (of both results and methods) in the entire centuries-old history of agriculture. In 1996–1999 The area sown with transgenic varieties of major food crops has increased almost 25 times.
It is those living in countries with low per capita income and experiencing food shortages who most need the products of new agricultural biotechnology, because this promises lower unit costs and increased profits for producers, and abundance and availability of food for consumers.
The promise of agricultural biotechnology to provide plants that can be used as medicines or vaccines (for example, against common diseases like hepatitis B or diarrhea) is growing. We will simply grow such plants and eat their fruits to cure or prevent many diseases. It's hard to imagine what a difference this might make in poor countries where conventional pharmaceuticals are still a novelty. This direction of research must be supported in every possible way. The current heated debate about transgenic crops centers on two main issues: safety and concerns about equal access and ownership. Concern about the potential dangers of GMOs is based largely on the belief that the introduction of “foreign” DNA into mainstream food crops is “unnatural” and therefore involves an inherent health risk. But since all living organisms, including food plants, animals, microbes, etc., contain DNA, how can recombinant DNA be considered “unnatural”? Even defining the concept of “foreign gene” is problematic, since many genes are common to a wide variety of organisms. Of course, it is necessary to label GM products, especially in cases where their properties differ markedly from traditional ones (say, in nutritional value) or they contain obvious allergens or toxins. But what is the point of such identification in cases where the qualities of GM and conventional products do not differ? According to the American Council on Science and Health, there is no reliable scientific information yet indicating any inherent dangers from GMOs. Recombinant DNA has been successfully used in pharmaceuticals for 25 years, where not a single case of harm caused by GM processes has yet been recorded. Likewise, there is no evidence of any harm caused by the consumption of GM foods. This does not mean that there are no risks associated with such products. As they say, “anything can happen.”
The Green Revolution has achieved only temporary success in humanity's war against hunger. Achieving true victory in this war is only a matter of time, and not too distant. Already today, humanity has technologies (either completely ready for use or in the final stages of development) capable of reliably feeding 10 billion people. The only question is whether food producers around the world will have access to these technologies.
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Rapid population growth after the Second World War in countries liberated from colonialism often led to famine in large areas, especially prone to droughts or floods. Such catastrophic events were observed in Ethiopia, Nigeria, India, Pakistan and other countries that did not have strategic food reserves in case of natural disasters. According to calculations by UN international organizations, in Africa, Asia and Latin America in the 50-60s. a population explosion was expected, fraught with consequences on a planetary scale. Starvation of people over vast territories would inevitably be accompanied by epidemics of especially dangerous diseases, which would not bypass the development of the country.
Breakthrough in scientific research, associated with the genetics of the main grain crops (wheat, rice, corn), which was carried out in the 50-60s. scientists in India, Korea, Mexico, and the Philippines, along with the widespread use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, opened new paths in the development of agricultural science and practice. And this has yielded significant results in solving the food problem in a number of developing countries. In Mexican research centers, high-yielding varieties of short-stemmed wheat were developed, suitable for the climatic conditions of the tropical and subtropical zones. High-yielding varieties of rice were developed in the Philippines. These cultures quickly spread to the countries of Asia and Latin America.
This phenomenon was called the Green Revolution in science and agriculture in the 50s and 60s. its first stage came. It was characterized by astonishing progress in increasing the yields of major food crops as a result of the widespread introduction of new semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and rice. The possibilities of combining the extensive development of the agricultural sector of the economy, traditional for developing countries, with intensive methods of agricultural production have expanded. In those regions where, with the help of chemical fertilizers, modern means plant protection, irrigation measures, conditions were created for the use of high-yielding varieties, the green revolution became a significant factor in solving the food problem.
Thanks to the green revolution, the predicted large-scale famine was avoided. It also contributed to the growth of farm incomes and accelerated economic development, especially in Asian countries. So, South Korea, already in the 70s. refused to import rice. And although the beneficial consequences of the green revolution for certain countries turned out to be different, in general, throughout the world, since the 60s, grain yields have increased by 65%, and tubers and root crops - by 28%. In Asia, the growth was 85% and 57%, respectively. In Africa, cereal progress has been below world averages due to poorer soil conditions, less intensive monocropping practices, disabilities irrigation, poor development of infrastructures related to agricultural credit, market and supply of industrial goods.
During the green revolution, the problems of transferring new technology, how much improvement of traditional agricultural technology in accordance with the recommendations modern science taking into account local conditions. This includes small-scale irrigation, the creation of agrotechnical systems that do not require highly qualified personnel, and the development of farming technology for small peasant farms. International research centers have carried out work to produce grain crops with a high protein content. Particular attention was paid to the implementation of programs related to the production of high-protein crops traditional for underdeveloped countries (millet, sorghum). The Green Revolution allowed us to gain the time necessary to stabilize the “demographic explosion” and alleviate the severity of the food problem.
Despite obvious successes, the first stage of the green revolution was stopped by a number of unresolved problems. Around the world, the yield of rice grown on irrigated lands is stagnant and even falling. Growing high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice requires a lot of fertilizers and a complex of agricultural machinery. Plant susceptibility to disease remains significant. And this gives rise to many economic problems.
The Green Revolution emphasized the cultivation of wheat and rice at the expense of other products needed for balanced diet. As a result, rural residents faced risks associated with changes in food patterns. Moreover, such important areas as the breeding of highly productive breeds in animal husbandry and effective ways fisheries At that time, it seemed impossible for developing countries to solve such problems, and for developed countries it looked problematic due to the high energy and material intensity of production, the need for large capital investments, and the scale of the impact on the biosphere.
The experience of the first stage of the green revolution showed that the intensification of agricultural production leads to certain social change, radical changes in the economy of a country. The strengthening of the market element in the structure of the agricultural sector led to a deterioration in the economic situation of traditional farms that met food needs local population. At the same time, the position of modern commercial-type farms has strengthened. They managed, with the support of government organizations, to carry out such agrotechnical measures as the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds, pesticides, and irrigation.
Agricultural productivity gains have contributed to polarization social relations in the village. The intensified formation of commodity-type farms involved an increasingly large part of agricultural products into market circulation, capturing not only surpluses, but also that part that is necessary for reproduction work force. Market needs reduced domestic spending, worsening the already difficult situation of the poorest sections of the peasantry. The low level of income of the majority of the population was the most important reason for the aggravation of the regional food situation. Attempts to intensify agricultural production, using Soviet experience or the practice of the developed Western world, did not produce the expected results in solving food problems in developing countries. For example, in the agricultural sector of African states, neither socialism nor capitalism has become the dominant type of management. They are characterized by a complex synthesis of capitalist and pre-capitalist relations.
The search for rational forms of land tenure and land use in developing countries has led to the understanding that the efficiency of the agricultural sector is associated not so much with the introduction of new technology, but with an increase in the marketability of traditional agricultural production, focused mainly on self-sufficiency within the framework of historically established community structures. The positive Japanese, South Korean, and Chinese experiences reject the idea of the universal priority of large agricultural enterprises. It is known that Japan, where communal-collectivist traditions are strong and where there is a large shortage of territory suitable for agriculture, has achieved significant results in agricultural development on the basis of relatively small farms, the average size which is about 1.2 hectares. Small farmers created with government support effective system cooperation that provided access to loans and the latest achievements of modern agricultural technology. Japanese small-scale farming was able to make full use of the arsenal of the green revolution. But the Chinese family economy, based primarily on manual labor and traditional technology and without losing its natural and patriarchal character, also achieved high gross indicators. World experience shows that small (up to two hectares) and medium-sized (five hectares) peasant farms can make a significant contribution to solving regional food problems.
Of primary importance in this process is the allocation of peasants' own plots of land. Then they can provide families with food, and also have a certain surplus for the exchange of goods, which forms the local food market. A significant role here belongs government regulation, providing preferential financing, sales markets, and favorable pricing policies. A national food market is gradually emerging. Relatively small farms are included in cooperative structures with access to the world food market. For example, China has already become an exporter of rice.
Concerning Western Europe, USA and Canada, where food problems are solved mainly not through government subsidies to small and medium-sized farms, but through the development of agricultural complexes, the total volume of food production for the population is constantly increasing. Thus, in the countries of the European Economic Community (EEC) in the 60-80s. The annual growth rate in agriculture was about 2%, and in consumption - 0.5%. Therefore, the unified policy of Western European countries in the field of agriculture is focused not only on increasing labor productivity, but also, in certain cases, on reducing food surpluses. The latter is done in order to balance supply and demand, reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and plant protection products, and prevent degradative changes in the biosphere.
So, the experience of world agricultural development indicates the presence of two trends.
The first is taking into account the regional specifics of food supply associated with external and internal imbalances in economic development countries, the influence of historical traditions of agricultural production with the specifics of natural and climatic conditions, the ratio of demographic parameters.
The second trend is the formation of a modern national-regional agricultural system in line with global processes. Here is the inclusion of agrarian-industrial complexes of individual countries in the world market, and the international division of labor, and the global direction of scientific and technological development, and the effectiveness of economic interaction in food production of regions with different natural and climatic factors, and the need to preserve the natural characteristics of the biosphere.
The harmonious unity of these two trends is necessary condition solutions to the world food problem.
a term denoting a sharp increase from mid. 1960s production of agricultural crops in many countries of the world through the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, improving the culture of agriculture, taking into account natural and climatic conditions.
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GREEN REVOLUTION
(Green Revolution) In the early 1960s. The improvement of agricultural production in third world countries, financed by international funds, led to what came to be called the “green revolution”. Improvement took place primarily through the use of hybrid seeds, mechanization and pest control. Countries were assisted in disseminating high-yielding varieties developed by an international team of specialists in Mexico. The same applies to pesticides and to the system of resource conservation based on large-scale production, which can only be organized through agricultural mechanization. This initiative actually led to a significant increase in agricultural production rates in third world countries. However, the “green revolution” was opposed by “environmentalism” and others, since it led to environmental disasters precisely in those countries where it had the greatest success. The successful mechanization of agriculture led to changes in the structure of the labor force and society as a whole, increasing class differences, as well as the exclusion of some national minorities and politically marginalized groups such as women from agricultural production. In addition, new plant varieties were not resistant to local diseases and required wide application pesticides that pollute water bodies and soil and increase the dependence of many third world countries on imports (since pesticides were produced in the West). Moreover, the commercialization of agriculture has led to the export of food from these countries, increasing the dependence of producers on the market, which does not always act in the interests of most producers.
