1. Personality – is a subject of social relations, a stable system of social significant features characterizing an individual as a member of society or community.

2. Social community – is an association of people in which a certain social connection is created and maintained b.

Main types of social communities:

· social groups: professional; labor collectives; socio-demographic; gender and age;

· classes and strata;

· socio-territorial communities;

· ethnic communities.

In addition, social communities can be divided according to quantitative criteria, according to scale.

· Large social communities - collections of people existing on the scale of society (country): classes; social layers (strata); professional groups; ethnic communities; gender and age groups.

· Medium or local communities: residents of one city or village; production teams of one enterprise.

· Small communities, groups: family; labor collective; school class, student group.

3. Social Institute – a certain organization of social activity and social relations, a set of institutions, norms, values, cultural patterns, sustainable forms of behavior.

Depending on the spheres of social relations, the following types of social institutions are distinguished:

economic: production, private property, division of labor, wage and etc.;

· political and legal: state, court, army, party, etc.;

· institutions of kinship, marriage and family;

· educational institutions: family, school, higher educational institutions, media, church, etc.;

· cultural institutions: language, art, work culture, church, etc.

4. Social connection – is a social process of articulation of at least two social elements, resulting in the formation of a single social system.

5. Social relations – interdependence and connections between elements of the social system that develop at various levels of society.

In relationships they manifest themselves social laws and patterns of functioning and development of society.

Main species social relations are:

· Power relations – relationships associated with the use of power.

· Social addiction– relationships based on the possibility of influencing the satisfaction of needs through values.

They develop between subjects regarding the satisfaction of their needs for appropriate working conditions, material goods, improvement of life and leisure, education and access to objects of spiritual culture, as well as medical care and social security.

6.Culture – the totality of life forms created by man in the course of his activity and life forms specific to him, as well as the process of their creation and reproduction.

Culture includes material and spiritual components:

· values ​​and norms;

· beliefs and rituals;

· knowledge and skills;

· customs and regulations;

· language and art;

· equipment and technology, etc.

Culture is the basis of social, social behavior individuals and social groups, since it is a system of collectively and individually shared norms, rules, and patterns of activity.

Thus, society is a complex social system consisting of different but interconnected elements.

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Sociology
PART 1 STUDY MANUAL FOR STUDENTS OF ALL SPECIALTIES AND DIRECTIONS Ulyanovsk UlSTU UDC 316 (075) B

Definition of Sociology
Sociology is a fairly young science about a very ancient subject - society. For two and a half thousand years, thinkers analyzed and described society without calling the knowledge gained social

Object and subject of sociology
The object of sociological science is social reality. Special distinctive feature of this reality, M. Weber defined the conscious interaction of people: “expectation of life

Structure and features of social sciences
Like any other science, sociology has its own subject and specific research methods. It is included in the general system scientific knowledge and occupies a strictly defined place in it. Co

Features of the sociological study of reality
Sociology deals with large masses of people whose opinions are studied using questionnaires. The data it receives is called statistical and is only suitable for all kinds of averaging. Poet

Structure and features of the humanities
Humanitarian disciplines include history, philosophy, literary studies, art history, and cultural studies. The humanities operate with loose models, value judgments and quality

Internal structure of sociology
Sociology is divided into many research areas - areas of interest of sociologists, for example, the study of juvenile delinquency. An area is formed when a specific social problem

Empirical and theoretical components of sociological knowledge
As we found out, the intradisciplinary matrix of sociology is a set of branches that cover the entire thematic field studied by sociological science. Intradisciplinary matrix of socio

Sociological structure – a reflection of social development
There is not only a close connection, but also a direct correspondence between the level and complexity of social knowledge and the level and complexity of the development of society. Sociology can be considered an objective mirror of

Functions of sociology
The number and list of branches of national sociology, the level of their development and the time of their appearance reflect the movement of a given country along the path of technical and social progress. Developing in various

Main functions of sociology
Functions Directions 1. Cognitive

The Birth of Sociology
Sociology is a relatively young science; It took shape as a professional field only a century and a half ago. But the object of its study - society - originated in ancient times. Counting down history

The first sociological theories: the scientific project of O. Comte
Auguste Comte sharply contrasted sociology with philosophy. Having received a mathematical and natural education, O. Comte believed that sociology should become accurate knowledge using natural methods.

Organic theory of G. Spencer
The English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) created the doctrine of social evolution - the organic theory.

Having received an engineering and craft education, G. Spencer turned to studied
The German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) received a comprehensive education and, together with Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895), developed the concept of socio-economic development

French sociological school
The beginning of this school was laid by O. Comte, but the real foundation was created by Emile Durkheim. French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917) was born into the family of a hereditary rabbi, but the family faith

German School of Sociology
German sociologist Max Weber (1864 – 1920) received historical, economic and legal education. Weber's works are amazing in their breadth of coverage and boldness of generalizations with

American Sociological School
An outstanding representative of American sociological thought was the Russian-born scientist Pitirim Sorokin (1889 - 1968), who, due to the universality of his coverage of the sociological problem,

Stages of development of Russian sociology
Sociological thought in Russia is developing as part of world sociological science. Experiencing the influence of various schools and currents of Western sociology, it at the same time reflects the uniqueness of the development of sociology.

Subjective sociology
Subjective sociology, created by the populists P. L. Lavrov (1823 - 1900) and N. K. Mikhailovsky (1842 - 1904), boiled down to the following: · the essence of social development consists in processing

Theories of the structure of society
The formation of the sociological concept of M. M. Kovalevsky was influenced by the ideas of O. Comte and the achievements of the comparative historical method developed in jurisprudence.

Sociological
Modern Russian sociology

In the 1990s, along with socio-economic living conditions, the influence of socio-psychological and behavioral factors increased significantly. Complex factor “lifestyle” associated with social
Concept of society

Society is a set of historically established and developing forms of joint activities and relationships between people.
Society is not a collection of individuals, but a special

Society as a system
A system (from the Greek system - a whole made up of parts; a connection) in a broad sense is a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming a certain whole

Typology of societies
Society is a collection of a wide variety of groups: large and small, real and nominal, primary and secondary.

A social group is understood as any collection
Society, its signs Social structure covers the placement of all relationships, dependencies, interactions between separate elements

in social systems of different ranks. The elements are social
Social stratification: historical types and modern strata Individuals' attachment to various forms , types and types of activities is essentially the basis social inequality , and execution specific labor

requires different labor potential
Historical types of stratification In sociology, there are four main types of stratification - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies

, and the last one is open.
Models of social stratification One of the founders of the theory social stratification

M. Weber is considered to be the one who proposed dividing society into layers.
The most famous stratification model is the model proposed

Stratification of modern Russian society
Stratification in Russia is increasingly taking the form of polarization. According to O. M. Zdravomyslova, “in Russia, “worlds” incompatible with each other have almost formed, each of which can live only Types of social mobility Understanding social mobility as any transition of an individual or

social object

from one position to another, P. Sorokin distinguishes two types of it: 1. Vertical: · ascending

Sociology attaches exceptionally great attention to the study of social institutions of society. The concept of “social institution” has a central place in the systemic-structural analysis of social life
By adapting to the environment, society throughout history develops tools suitable for solving many problems and satisfying critical needs. These tools are called social

Institutionalization and institutional crisis Institutionalization is the consolidation of a practice or area of ​​social relations in the form of a law or social norm, an accepted order. Institutionalization means development and history Since foreign, and after them Russian, sociologists adhere to

R. Mills counted five institutional orders in modern society, meaning the main institutions: 1. Economic - institutions that organize economic activity;

Function (from Latin functio - execution, implementation) is the purpose or role that a certain social institution or process performs in relation to the whole (for example,

Functions Types of institutions Reproduction (reproduction of society as a whole and its individual members, as well as their work

Functions once performed by one institution may, over time, be transferred to others or distributed, partially or completely, among others. Let's say, in the distant past, the institution of the family did not fulfill

Types and role purpose of organizations
Today, the sociology of organizations is one of the most developed private sociological theories. At the same time, it is not a holistic and monolithic discipline - it is a dynamically developing multi-model

Organization and social order
The basis for the emergence of an organization is the need for people to carry out joint cooperative activities and achieve certain common goals. A necessary condition for the functioning of

Elements of the internal structure of an organization
The first of essential elements internal environment and internal situational variables of the organization - organizational goals. The special role of goals in the formation of organizational structure and

Sociology of city and village
Social communities of territorial type include the city and the village.

A city is a concentrated territorial settlement of people engaged in diverse and heterogeneous
Urbanization and its social consequences. Contemporary problems in the lives of city residents

The city can be considered as the material basis of all human life. It provides for a person’s entire life: from the maternity hospital to the cemetery. The city is a self-sufficient system.
The situation of the rural producer: rural sociology

For rural sociology, important methodological provisions are: · agricultural production is a sphere that ensures the integrity of the national economic organism and without
Concept of culture

Culture (from Lat. culture - cultivation, upbringing, education, development) is a set of life created by man in the course of his activities and specific to him
Cultural conflicts Anomie means a violation of the unity of culture associated with the lack of clearly formulated social norms

. When the process of industrialization accelerated in Europe and America,
The first is educational. From its name one can see its goal, i.e. education, upbringing or, as sociologists say, socialization of the individual, that is, the acquisition of knowledge, language, symbols

Basic structural elements of culture
The following structural elements of culture can be distinguished.

The first element is concepts, which are contained mainly in language. Thanks to concepts, human relationships are organized
Cultural Norms

Closely related to cultural values ​​are norms, that is, certain standards of behavior, work, and relationships between people. As mentioned above, for compliance with norms an individual is respected, loved,
Forms and types of culture

The division of culture into material and spiritual is widely known. But there is no such thing that was 100% material or, conversely, 100% spiritual culture. Ordinary passenger car - uh

Public opinion is the attitude developed in society, explicit or hidden, towards social events and phenomena, the activities of various groups, organizations, and individuals.
Main characteristics of public opinion On empirical level

it is proposed to determine public opinion through: attitudes, value judgments or practical actions of social communities, which express their response to p
Conditions for the formation of public opinion

Public opinion is formed where and when a problem of important practical importance is brought up for discussion among the population, affecting the essential interests of people (economic,
Structural elements of public opinion Even G. F. Hegel studied the phenomenon public opinion

. He identified a number of structural elements in it: the first is the condition for the existence of public opinion, the second is the object (content) of social
Types of public opinion

Important types of public opinion are analytical and constructive, which are closely related: making any decision requires a deep and comprehensive analysis, which requires
Measuring and managing public opinion In a modern democratic society, the role of public opinion approaches the role of a “social institution” and is determined by the following factors

: · Availability of an extensive network of mass media
Labor as a form of existence. Work motivation

The term “labor” in Russian has a positive connotation. To work is the duty of every person. In ideological terms, debates about this have not yet become a thing of the past. Whose labor creates the people's b
Sociology of labor is determining in the life of every member of society.

Sociology studies labor as a socio-economic process and solves the following problems: 1. Study and
Functions of the sociology of labor as a science

Each science performs three important functions: positive, normative and socio-technological.
The positive function of science is to identify the real patterns of

Essence, functions and models of work motivation
In order to involve a person in solving a particular problem, one must be able to find the motivation that would prompt him to action. And only with appropriate motivation can people be inspired Labor incentives Labor stimulation is an impact on

work behavior
employee through motivation.

Motivation is verbal behavior aimed at choosing motives (
Labor collective as a social organization

A work collective is an association of workers engaged in joint labor activities.
In modern sociology, the concept of a work collective

Social processes in a labor organization
A labor organization is a complex socio-economic organism in which progressive and regressive changes occur. Sociology is interested, first of all, in the processes of formation and

Typology of labor organizations
Labor organizations can be typologized on the following grounds: 1. In relation to production: · production labor organizations: o industrial;

Unemployment and its social consequences
Unemployment is the presence of unemployed people. Unemployed is a person who does not have a permanent job or income. This definition is given to unemployment in the Russian dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov. Unemployed Types of unemployment

Economic theory uses two indicators that can paint an objective picture of economic instability in the labor market. This is the unemployment rate and its average duration.
The essence of social conflict

Social conflict (from the Latin conflitus - confrontation) is a confrontation between two or more
Tensions and conflicts in the regions of Russia have not yet attracted due attention from leading sociological research centers. The somewhat artificial focus of the scientific community's attention

Concept of social interaction and action
Social interaction is a system of interdependent social actions connected by cyclical dependence, in which the action of one subject is both the cause and consequence of the response.

Interaction in the social action system
Social interaction, consisting of individual actions, includes, first of all, statuses and social roles. From here we can typologize them into areas: 1. Economic.

Interaction as exchange
Every interaction can be seen as an exchange. You can exchange anything: signs of attention, words, gestures, symbols, material objects.

The foundations of exchange theory were not laid
Concept of social relations Social relations are a set of connections that arose as a result of the interaction of social actors. Social relationships are closely related to

social statuses
, and you can't socialize

Types of public relations
Social relations act as elements of the social system. Existing social relations can be represented as follows.

1. Economic relations.
These are from

Concept of social movement
A social movement is a set of collective actions aimed at supporting social change or resisting social change in society or social

Types of Social Movements
In accordance with the goals pursued by social movements, the following types are distinguished: 1. Reform movements. They advocate progressive and gradual changes in existing Stages of social movements

Despite the differences in goals, methods of action and behavior, all social movements go through the same stages in their development. Russian sociologist S.S. Frolov will highlight such life cycles of social
Concept of social change

Social change
Social progress is the world-historical process of the ascent of human society from a primitive state to the heights of civilization.

Social progress on
Types of Social Progress In sociology there is a distinction the following types

social progress: 1. Reform is a partial improvement in any area of ​​life, a series of gradual transformations that do not affect
Concept and types of ethnic groups Life modern society is complex and diverse, and national or ethnic relations play a huge role in social relations. Currently on

globe
there are more

Genus. Tribe
A clan is a group of blood relatives, a collection of several families descending from a common ancestor.

Main characteristics of the genus: presence of a common genus
Nationality

There is currently controversy among scientists regarding the definition of nationality.
Some consider nationality a transitional community from tribe to nation; a community that has lost the main features of a tribe, Nation concept A nation (from Latin nation - tribe, people) is a historical community of people that takes shape in the process of forming a common territory, economic ties, literary

Nations and modernity
The nation is

superior view
ethnicity. Whether the nation will be able to develop on a global scale into a global community will probably not be shown in the near future. The nation is a noumenon, not a phenomenon of history, I am forever developing

National relations in modern Russian society
Ethnic communities constantly interact with each other and with other subjects of social life.

National relations are a set of connections between ethnic groups
Concept of the national question

The national question is a set of political, economic, territorial, legal and cultural relations between ethnic communities regarding their equality.
National self-determination

Definition of national conflict
In today's world there are about 200 sovereign states. And naturally, conflicts and clashes of interests existed and still exist between ethnic communities. There are a variety of

Types of national conflicts
According to its typological characteristics, a national conflict is, first of all, social, since its subjects are large social groups whose interests become contradictory

Ways to prevent and resolve national conflict
In recent years, the state of interethnic relations and the nature of conflicts in this area have changed quite significantly. It was possible to reduce the intensity of open mass armed conflicts and their consequences

Concept of personality
It is known that on one of the twelve columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi the inscription was carved: “Know thyself.” From those ancient times until today a person knows himself and knows himself to the end

Personality structure
Personality is a complexly organized system that combines the biological and the social. Each society leaves its own specific imprints on the individual.

In general, personality structure
Personality as an activity type

Jean-Paul Sartre famously said: “Man is nothing other than what he makes himself.” This expression clearly shows the idea of ​​self-realization, a person’s desire to achieve
Concept of social status

Social status (from the Latin state, position) is an intative indicator of an individual or social group in a hierarchical structure, in a system of social connections and relations
Concept of social role

A social role is a normative pattern of behavior, a set of actions that must be performed by an individual occupying a certain status in the social system.
M

Types and properties of social roles
In his life and even every day, a person performs several roles. A collection of roles is called a role set. The following groups or types of roles can be distinguished: 1. Family-related - with

Personality socialization: stages and results
Personal socialization (from the Latin socialis - public) is the process of assimilation by a human individual of a certain system of knowledge, patterns of behavior, social norms, etc.

Personality types
The social role includes two theses of completely non-coinciding aspects: role expectation and role performance. A person's character acts as a connecting link between them.

Roles
Implementation of social control Acting as a regulator of social interaction, social control

can be implemented in the following ways: 1. Self-control.
The person knows the basic m

Social sanctions
Social sanctions (from the Latin sanction - the strictest decree) are measures of influence, reward and/or punishment for social actions.

Sanctions rewarded
The concept of deviation

Deviant behavior (from the Latin de - separation and via - road, devio - deviation) is the behavior of an individual or group that does not correspond to generally accepted norms
Causes of deviation

There are disagreements among sociologists regarding the causes and origins of deviant behavior. Some see the reasons for deviant behavior in heredity, others - in the structural features of the human body.
Types of deviation

Deviant behavior can be typologized on the following grounds: 1. According to the scale of deviation: primary - insignificant and tolerable deviation, when the actions of an individual
Theories of deviation

Problems of deviant behavior have always been studied by sociologists, and as a result, the following theories have emerged.
1. Theories of physical types.

The founder of these theories was
Deviant behavior of Russian youth: forms and causes

In modern Russia, the main forms of deviant behavior among young people are the same as those characteristic of the entire population of the country. At the same time, they are characterized by some specific shades. In first place one hundred
Family concept

Family is a small social group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are bound by a common life, mutual assistance, moral and legal responsibility.
Genesis of the family

The origin of the family is rooted in the deep past. In the genesis of a family, a number of stages can be distinguished.
Stage 1 – starting a family. This stage is characterized by: · Signs of a family The modern family in its development goes through the following periods (phases) of the life cycle: · formation of a family - marriage; can be defined as follows: 1. Spouse

Basic functions of the family
Social needs Functions Individual needs Biological reproduction Reproduction

Dynamics of family life norms
Norms of a traditional family Functions of a family Norms of a modern family A family should have many children Repro

Family transformation
Dynamics of norms family life indicates a transformation of the family, the main indicators of which are the following: · A tendency towards fewer family members. Typical modern family - m

Conflict in the family
The transformation of the family and its development trends show that the relationship between spouses is of decisive importance for the stability of the family. In overwhelming cases, the basis of divorce is the conflict between

Marriage concept
The modern family is increasingly transforming into a social group and social institution based on a marriage bond built on love and mutual respect.

Marriage
Types of marriages

Sociologists know many types of marriage, let's consider the main ones: 1. Endogamous - a marriage entered into by a man and a woman of the same social group.
Main characteristics of public opinion 2. Exogamous - marriage when Globalization and features of its manifestation in the political, economic and cultural spheres of society

modern stage
development of mankind, a unified civilization is being formed throughout the planet. The rooting of this idea in science and public consciousness contributed to the awareness of the globalization of processes in the Soviet Union.

Manifestations of globalization
In the political sphere: · the emergence of supranational units of various scales: political and military blocs (NATO), imperial spheres of influence (US sphere of influence), ruling coalitions

Russia in the modern global world
There are both supporters and opponents of globalization in Russia. At the same time, the former, as a rule, share the ideas of neoliberalism, while the latter gravitate toward the well-known “soilers.” Unfortunately, very often Sociological research as a means of studying social reality Sociological research is a specific type

scientific research
at all. It is subject to general scientific requirements, the main one among which is the identification of truth

Logic and methodology of research
The stages of sociological research are successive stages of research development, reflected in the program and work plan.

Sociological research usually includes
Sociological Research Program

The sociological research program includes two main components: 1. Research methodology: · Definition and justification of the problem;
· Definition of q

Research work plan
The work plan of the study reflects the main procedural activities, stages of the study and may include: 1. Preparatory stage: o discussion and approval of the program Basic methods and results of applied research Research methods and procedures are a system of more or less formalized rules for collecting, processing and analyzing the information received. But here too, methodological assumptions play a role

vital role
, P Types of questions The art of questioning lies in precise formulation and

correct location
questions.

All questions are divided into three types: 1. Open - this is a direct question to which
Bibliography

Literature* 1. Large Sociological Dictionary (Collins). In 2 volumes: trans. from English – M.: Veche; AST, 2005. – 1 volume - 528 pp.; 2t. -544 c.

2. Gorshkov, M. K. Applied

Internet resources

Status presupposes the implementation of certain representative and binding actions that form a model of behavior - a role. Roles help mentally formulate behavior in order to act appropriately. A role is the expected behavior associated with a certain status. The fulfillment of a role is equivalent to the implementation of the social function of a person with some status. In real life, there is often a discrepancy between proper and actual behavior. It is important that the role is not a rigidly fixed model of behavior. An individual's actions reflect his individual interpretation of his own role.

The set of roles corresponding to a given status (student) is called a role system or role set (student, fellow student, library reader, etc.). Our roles are defined by other people's expectations. Some expectations, such as laws, are formal; others, say, table manners, are informal. When a person's actions correspond to role expectations, he receives social rewards.

Statuses and roles are building blocks of more complex social structures, including groups. Group - 2 or more individuals who have common views and are connected to each other by relatively stable patterns of social interaction. A group is formed by individuals with appropriate roles if they interact consistently over time.

4) Institutes

A social institution is a set of roles and statuses designed to satisfy a specific social need. The following groups of needs of society are distinguished, which correspond to groups of institutions: 1) communication between members of society (educational institutions); 2) production, distribution and consumption of goods and services (economic institutions); 3) protection of members of society and regulation of their behavior (political institutions); 4) reproduction of the social system (family).

5) Societies

Society is an association of people that has a fixed common territory, common cultural values ​​and social norms, is replenished mainly through intra-social childbearing and has political independence.

37. Social structure and its historical types

Any system has its own structure. Structure is the structure and internal form of organization of a system, acting as a unity of stable relationships between its elements. It is easy to see that the concept of “structure” primarily combines two terms such as elements and the relationship between these elements. Thus, we can say that each structure has its own composition and its own internal connections. The social structure of society as an integral system is no exception.

Therefore, for a more complete consideration of this term, we will dwell on the interpretation of the concepts of “social composition” and “social connections”. Social composition is a set of elements that make up a social system. Such elements include individuals and their associations (social, political, economic, etc.). Individual– this is the most general concept that includes the most general properties of a person.

The primary organization of individuals in society is the family. Family- this is the very first public association of people, the most important form of organization of life, based on marital union and family ties and performing the function of biological reproduction of their own kind. More complex forms of association are corporate and public organizations.

Corporate associations– these are bodies created for the purpose of conducting joint economic activities. Public associations– these are bodies created to implement socially significant goals.

The second characteristic of a social structure is social connection. Social connection– these are stable interactions between elements of the social system. In the structure of society, one can note the existence of such connections as biological, economic, political, sociocultural, and spiritual. So, social structure is a complex concept, and its interpretation can be made in both a broad and narrow sense.

In historical terms, the social structure of society in the broad sense of the word appeared much earlier than the social class structure.

Within the framework of this theory, it is customary to distinguish four types of social structure of society: slave, caste, estate and class.

The slave-owning type of social structure is characteristic primarily of ancient societies. The form of social communication in such societies is direct violence.

The main elements of the system are two groups of people: some people have civil rights, others are completely deprived of them and, like things, are turned into objects private property. This position is most often inherited and thus consolidated through generations.

The caste type of social structure is characteristic of a number of eastern states, primarily India. In these societies, social ties are of a hereditarily prescribed socio-professional nature and are secured by religious order. Each caste is a closed group, which is assigned a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy: there is a clear list of occupations for members of a certain caste, and a person cannot change his position in the caste system throughout his life.

Class type of social structure. This type was scientifically developed in the works of the founders of Marxism. They define a class as a large group of people united by their socioeconomic status, which usually includes three variables - occupational prestige, level of education and income level.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

Before moving on to the topic of our essay, let us understand the concept of “social structure of society.”

So, the social structure of society means the objective division of society into separate layers, groups, different in their social status, in their relation to the method of production. This is a stable connection of elements in a social system.

Social structure as a kind of framework of the entire system of social relations, that is, as a set of economic, social and political institutions that organize public life. On the one hand, these institutions define a certain network of role positions and normative requirements in relation to specific members of society. On the other hand, they represent certain fairly stable ways of socialization of individuals.

The main principle of determining the social structure of society should be the search for real subjects of social processes. Subjects can be both individuals and social groups of various sizes, identified on different grounds: youth, the working class, a religious sect, and so on. From this point of view, the social structure of society can be represented as a more or less stable relationship between social layers and groups.

In a broad sense, social structure is the structure of society as a whole, a system of connections between all its main elements. With this approach, social structure characterizes all the numerous types of social communities and the relationships between them. In a narrow sense, the term “social structure of society” is most often applied to social-class and social-group communities. Social structure in this sense is a set of interconnected and interacting classes, social strata and groups.

The main elements of the social structure are such social communities as classes and class-like groups, ethnic, professional, socio-demographic groups, socio-territorial communities (city, village, region). Each of these elements, in turn, is a complex social system with its own subsystems and connections. The social structure of society reflects the characteristics of social relations of classes, professional, cultural, national-ethnic and demographic groups, which are determined by the place and role of each of them in the system of economic relations. The social aspect of any community is concentrated in its connections and mediations with production and class relations in society.

There are two generally accepted paradigms for considering social structure: 1) theories of social institutions and 2) theories of social inequality.

E. Durkheim figuratively defined social institutions as “factories of reproduction” of social relations and connections, i.e. Institutions generally mean certain types of relationships between people that are constantly in demand by society and therefore are revived again and again. Social institutions are specific formations that ensure the relative stability of connections and relationships within the boundaries of the social organization of society, historically determined forms of organization and regulation of social life. Social institutions are historically established persistent forms of organizing the joint activities of people. They must ensure reliability and regularity of meeting the needs of individuals, cereals, and society as a whole. Social institutions determine the functioning of any society. When using the concept of “social institution,” they most often mean various kinds of ordering, formalization of social connections and relationships, mastery of such features as:

1.consistency and degree of interactions between participants in connections and relationships;

2. a clear definition of the functions, rights and responsibilities that ensure the interaction of each of the communication participants;

3. regulation and control over the interaction of subjects, the presence of specially trained personnel who ensure the functioning of social institutions.

In order for such a structural element of society as a social institution to arise and develop, special conditions are needed:

1. a certain need must arise and spread in society, which, being recognized by many members of society (as a general social or societal one), becomes the main prerequisite for the formation of a new institution;

2. operational means must be available to satisfy this need, i.e. the established system of functions, actions, operations, private goals necessary for society, realizing a new need;

3. in order for the institute to actually fulfill its mission, it is endowed with the necessary resources (material, financial, labor, organizational), which society must steadily replenish;

4. To ensure the self-reproduction of an institution, a special cultural environment is also necessary, i.e. a subculture unique to it must be formed (a special system of signs, actions, rules of behavior that distinguish people belonging to this institution).

Social institutions are diverse:

Political institutions (state, party, army);

Economic institutions (distribution of labor, property, taxes, etc.)

Institutes of kinship, marriage, family;

Institutions operating in the spiritual sphere (education, culture, mass communications), etc.

Social inequality in society is most often understood as stratification - the distribution of social groups in a hierarchically ordered rank (in ascending or descending order of some characteristic).

Theories of social inequality are divided into two fundamental directions: functionalist and conflictological.

Functionalism, in the tradition of E. Durkheim, derives social inequality from the division of labor: mechanical (natural, gender and age) and organic (arising as a result of training and professional specialization).

Marxism focuses on issues of class inequality and exploitation. Accordingly, conflict theories usually emphasize the dominant role of differentiating relations of property and power in the system of social reproduction.

So, the social structure of society is the totality of those connections and relationships that social groups and communities of people enter into among themselves regarding the economic, social, political and spiritual conditions of their life, and its main elements are:

1.social communities (large and small groups);

2.professional groups;

3.socio-demographic groups;

4.socio-territorial communities.

The types of social structures vary depending on the level of development of the division of labor and socio-economic relations.

Thus, the social structure of a slave-owning society was made up of classes of slaves and slave owners, as well as artisans, traders, landowners, free peasants, representatives of mental activity - scientists, philosophers, poets, priests, teachers, doctors, etc.

The social structure of feudal society was the interrelation of the main classes - feudal lords and serfs, as well as classes and various groups of the intelligentsia. These classes, wherever they arise, differ from each other in their place in the system of social division of labor and socio-economic relations. Estates occupy a special place in it. Estates are social groups whose place in society is determined not only by their position in the system of socio-economic relations, but also by established traditions and legal acts.

In Russia, for example, there were such classes as the nobility, clergy, peasantry, merchants, and philistines.

Capitalist society, especially modern society, has a complex social structure. Within the framework of its social structure, primarily various groups of the bourgeoisie, the so-called middle class and workers interact.

The main elements of a socialist society are the working class, the cooperative peasantry, the intelligentsia, professional and demographic groups and national communities.

Almost all elements of the social structure are heterogeneous in composition and, in turn, are divided into separate layers and groups, which appear as independent elements of the social structure with their inherent interests, which they realize in interaction with other subjects.

Social groups are relatively stable, historically established communities of people who differ in their role and place in the system of social connections of a historically defined society.

Sociologists distinguish social groups from aggregations in that the former are united on the basis of objective circumstances and belonging to a group is associated with the objective position of people in the system of social connections, the fulfillment of certain social roles, and the latter are a certain number of people who have gathered in a certain physical space and are not carries out conscious interactions. In order for a collection of people to be recognized as a group, there must be interaction between its members and the existence of expectations shared by each member of the group regarding its other members.

There are formal and informal groups:

A formal group is “a social group that has legal status, is part of a social institution, organization, and has the goal of achieving a certain result within the division of labor in a given institution or organization.” It is important that a formal group is characterized by a certain hierarchical structure of subordination.

An informal group is a social community that is formed on the basis of interpersonal relationships and does not have an official, legally fixed, approved status. The form of existence of informal groups can be different; they can function as relatively isolated, closed social communities and can develop within official groups and be an integral part of the official group.

Based on the individual's affiliation, one can distinguish between an ingroup and an outgroup.

Ingroups are those groups to which an individual feels that he belongs and in which he is identified with other members, that is, he understands the members of the ingroup as “we”. Other groups to which the individual does not belong are outgroups for him, that is, “they”.

In addition to the ingroup and outgroup, a reference group is also distinguished, which means a real or conditional social community with which an individual relates himself as a standard and to the norms, views, values ​​and assessments of which he is guided in his behavior and self-esteem. There are normative and comparative referent functions of the group.

The first is manifested in the fact that the group acts as a source of norms of behavior, social attitudes and value orientations of the individual.

The other (comparative function) is manifested in the fact that the reference group acts as a standard by which an individual can evaluate himself and others.

Based on the nature of the relationships between group members, primary and secondary groups are distinguished. In a primary group, each member sees the other group members as individuals and individuals. Members of groups such as friends and family tend to make social relationships informal and relaxed.

In secondary groups, social contacts are impersonal and have a utilitarian, one-sided nature. All contacts are functional according to social roles.

To analyze the social structure of society, we use such an elementary part of society that contains all types of social connections - this is a small social group whose social relations manifest themselves in the form of direct personal contacts. A small group can be either primary or secondary, depending on what type of relationship exists between its members. A large group can only be secondary. When studying small groups, one can trace the emergence of social processes, mechanisms of cohesion, the emergence of leadership, and role relationships.

Basic elements of the social structure of society

The elements of the structure of society are large or small groups of people united together according to similar parameters, be it socio-demographic, socio-political, economic, cultural and other characteristics. The individual is also an element of the social structure. According to structural and functional analysis, an individual actor may have increased activity in creating certain strata, including powerful monopolies of power. The individual is at the center of the “social system of social action”; he is involved in the continuous process of metabolism - renewal and replacement in the social system. At the same time, it is not the individual, but the stratum, a small group, that is the primary element, the atom of social stratification.

M. Weber, in his programmatic article “Basic Concepts of Stratification”, became the founder of an independent theoretical and methodological direction in the study of social inequality - the concept of social stratification. He believed that people can unite into strata, small groups, based on any life situation– on religious grounds, educational, based on the prestige and popularity of the profession, nationality, cultural patterns of behavior, etc. There may be elite castes to which people belong by birth - castes of inherited charisma.

One of the first to study the topic of social stratification was the famous Russian-American scientist P. Sorokin. He gave not only a relatively complete theoretical explanation of the phenomenon of stratification of society, but what is especially important is the volume of empirical materials, which proved that stratification is not an invention of scientists, but a reality. Sorokin believed that society can be imagined in the form of social space, discrete points in it are social statuses, the vertical distance between them is not equal. Let's say, the distance between the driver and the milling machine operator is one, and between the driver and the professor is different; in social space they are significantly removed from each other.

Sorokin gave the following definition of the concept of “class”, which he considered in a narrow sense, i.e. like a stratum. A class (stratum) is a cumulative social group, which is understood as a total social group, a set of interacting forces connected into one interacting whole by a number of similar elementary characteristics. In other words, this is a normal, semi-closed, but approaching open, group typical of our time, consisting of a cumulation of three main groups:

1) professional, 2) property, 3) volume-legal.

Let us note that Sorokin is in the style of many sociologists of the early twentieth century. strives to use natural scientific terminologies in order to emphasize that biological, physical laws, and mathematical axioms can be applied to the study of human society - all of them enrich the sociological method. The text of the definition contains the word “cumulation” - from the medieval Latin term cumulatio, which means “accumulation”. The cumulative effect was understood as the concentration of the explosion in one direction. Why does Sorokin call the stratum a cumulative social group? Apparently the sociologist is using here figurative meaning term “cumulation”: a stratum is not any group formed randomly, but only one in which similar people with pronounced, “strong” social properties are associated. In the stratum, accumulation, summation, concentration of these properties occurs, and people begin to act in the same way, their reaction to life processes becomes identical and even predictable. The unity of cumulative properties gives rise to the unity of worldview. That is why empirical sociologists use a stratified sampling method: it is enough to interview a proportional number of representatives of certain strata that are important to the researcher. Several agents from each stratum - and the principle of representation will be respected, because in this case the person protects the whole.

Sorokin considered the main features of unification into strata to be the similarity of profession, level of wealth and civil rights. These similarities make a class (stratum) social type and gives rise to similarities in tastes, beliefs, likes and dislikes, and the entire lifestyle of people of the same class. Let us give examples of strata based on Sorokin’s definition.

1) Physicist scientists receiving high incomes and enjoying a number of social privileges;

2) Police officers who receive relatively high and average incomes, have a number of social restrictions and live according to the laws of a closed corporate society (non-disclosure of professional secrets, appointments in the hierarchy, etc.);

3) Plumbing workers with low incomes and limited rights (it is unlikely that a plumber will be considered as a potential candidate for the post of president of the country, etc.).

A class can also be considered as an element of a structure. If we talk about class in a broad sense as a large group of people who are united primarily by economic interests - ownership or non-ownership of one or another form of property, involvement in a certain type of production, etc., then we must turn to the Marxist interpretation of class. As you know, Marx did not define class; it was precisely because of his arguments about how difficult it is to give this definition that his manuscripts ended. However, Marx emphasized that the economic criterion is key in the structuring of society, and the existence of classes is associated with certain phases of development of production. The definition of class, complete in its logic, was given by V.I. Lenin, which is still rightfully considered a classic. “Classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in a historically defined system of social production, in their relationship (mostly fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, and, consequently, in their methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have. Classes are groups of people from which one can appropriate the work of another, due to the difference in their place in a certain structure of the social economy.”

Let us isolate from this definition those class-forming characteristics on which Lenin concentrates his attention:

1) place in the production system

2) attitude towards the means of production

3) role in labor organization

4) ways to get wealth

5) the amount of wealth.

Marx, Engels and Lenin considered the main classes of society to be capitalists and industrial workers, exploiters and the exploited, owning a huge share of social wealth and beggars. By the way, the tradition of considering “rich” and “poor” as the main class forces of society goes back to Ancient Greece and has survived to this day. However, from a sociological point of view, this approach can be regarded as simplified, since one sign of class formation is chosen here - material and property, and the extreme polarization of society and class antagonism are emphasized. In fact, in many countries the rich make up only 3.8% of the social composition of the population (including in Russia) and, due to their small numbers, cannot be interpreted as a class; rather, they are the highest economic stratum of society, and the remaining 95% are also far from homogeneous by the income factor and do not represent a monolithic “class”.

Classes as such, as a social phenomenon, appeared on the horizon of history as a product of the industrial revolution of the 18th-19th centuries, which destroyed the inert and ossified federal system of estates and brought to life new social forces, which led to the formation of the class system. The development of trade, industry, and the market led to the formation of new professions: entrepreneurs, merchants, bankers, merchants. A new economic stratum appeared, which feudal society did not know - hired industrial workers.

In “The Class Struggle in France,” Marx discovers the following sociological law: the development of the industrial proletariat is conditioned by the development of the industrial bourgeoisie; only under the dominance of the bourgeoisie does the proletariat acquire a broad national existence. Thus, both exploiters and exploited equally participate in the formation of a new type of social stratification.

In our time, the following judgments are sometimes heard: capitalism has been transformed, antagonism between classes has been weakened, the importance of ownership of the means of production is declining, shares of one enterprise can be owned by hundreds of thousands of people - trace

In other words, “classes disappear.” There is, indeed, some truth in these arguments, because the era of individual and family capitalism has sunk into oblivion; in developed countries, the middle wealthy strata make up up to 2-3 of society. But classes are not an ideological invention of Marxists, but a reality of social life, for today, as a hundred years ago, there continues to be a significant difference in the nature, content and remuneration of labor between specialists in mental and physical labor, people living in the city and the countryside, between bosses and employees. Differences in economic interests, access to resources, power, management of an enterprise or society as a whole continue to split society into separate classes, and this process is objective, since inequality is inherent and modern type society.

Even scientists who are far from Marxism recognize the importance of the conclusions made by Marx. For example, Danish sociologist Thomas Heurup, author of the book “Models of Life,” writes that the concepts of “socio-economic formation” and “mode of production” are fundamental in sociology. T. Heurup suggests replacing the term “class” with a more modern one – “life model”, but this will not change the content of the phenomenon. A class, according to Hoyrup, is not a social group of individuals that has common characteristics, but a unique form of practice, a way of existence based on a strictly defined mode of production. And in modern Danish society, the scientist identifies 3 main classes:

1) self-employed workers (farmers, peasants, members of family enterprises);

2) wage-earners;

3) success-oriented managers and experts.

Scientists such as L. Gumplowicz, G. Schmoller, W. Sombart, R. Cantillon, K. Marx, V. Lenin, M. Kovalevsky and others wrote about classes and class relations; the concept of social stratification was developed by M. Weber, T. Parsons, W.L. Warner, P. Sorokin, G. Lenski, B. Barber and others.

Being a structurally complex social system, society consists of interconnected and relatively independent parts. Social structure is a set of elements that make up a social system, as well as connections, relationships, interactions between and within them.

The main elements of social structure that are of interest to sociological science are the following:

Social groups that form the basis of the social structure of society;

Social organizations and social institutions, interacting with each other and society as a whole;

Social norms and values ​​that govern relationships within and between groups;

Social activity within which social relationships are formed;

Social statuses and social roles to which the subjects of this activity correspond.

Social group as the most important component social structure - a way of relatively stable interaction of individuals with each other over a long period of time. A group is not just a certain number of people, but a set of relationships between them that have developed on the basis of common interests and needs in the process of joint activity.

Every social group has its own distinctive characteristics:

Boundaries - it is known who is a member of the group, what its size is;

Identity - group members know how they differ from representatives of another group, feel their own uniqueness, have their own spiritual atmosphere, their own values ​​and norms within the framework of joint activities;

Symbols, badges, uniforms, identification cards and other insignia;

Activity - joint actions of group members aimed at common interests;

Roles - for example, the role of a leader.

Each group has a “core”, which consists of those members who most closely correspond to the characteristics of this group.

The social structure of society is made up of various group communities of people:

1. Social classes and strata. These include workers, peasants, entrepreneurs, intellectuals, office workers and other groups of people with a large number of members.

2. Ethnic communities. Among them are various nations, nationalities, multinational communities integrated into large groups with common interests and needs.

3. Territorial entities. These are residents of a city or village, region or administrative district, federal subject or country as a whole.

4. Professional groups. These include groups of doctors, teachers, lawyers, car drivers, machine operators, and representatives of other professions and specialties.

5. Socio-demographic groups. For example, youth, women, pensioners.

6. Political groups. These are mass movements, political parties, and other socio-political formations.

7. Sociocultural groups. Among them: movie lovers, rock music lovers, collectors, and other fans of culture or subculture.

8. Family and household communities. These include family and everyday life in their various types and forms.

9. Religious groups. This includes various sects, groups of people who visit temples or only observe certain rituals, etc.

The groups listed above do not exhaust all the diversity of existing group communities. However, these social formations more often come to the attention of a sociologist and are the object of sociological research.

Social groups are also divided according to the nature of connections between their members:

Primary groups - connected with each other by emotional, spiritual, family relationships, capable of exerting a strong influence on each other;

Secondary groups - impersonal relationships predominate: structural and functional divisions of the enterprise, various clubs, committees, etc.

Groups are usually classified according to the level of formality of their formation:

Formal ones are created and regulated by special laws, instructions, orders, regulations;

Informal ones develop spontaneously, based on common interests and the authority of leaders.

Relations in society are coordinated by social organizations. Every organization usually strives to ensure that its members can satisfy their basic needs. This desire results in a certain practice, which is consolidated through specific social institutions.

Social organizations- these are large associations of people, a set of interacting individuals, social groups, statuses, roles, norms aimed at achieving certain social results.

The purpose of an organization is the expected end result of its activities. This is what the organization was created for.

Hierarchy is the distribution of power within an organization. Assumes the presence of leaders and subordinates interacting with each other. Leadership in an organization can be formal (official) and informal (based only on authority).

Management involves a conscious and purposeful influence on the organization, encouraging its members to effective solution standing tasks. Among the objects of management there can be both structural elements of the organization itself (for example, objects and means of labor) and external factors (interaction with other organizations).

Formalization requires limiting the behavior of organization members within an official framework - rules internal regulations, charters, norms, rules.

Organizations are often divided into types according to the methods of their formation:

Voluntary (public) organizations - are created to protect the interests of their members and require free withdrawal from the organization;

Official (formal) organizations - are created to achieve certain socially significant goals within the framework of bureaucratic systems that have a stable, clearly organized management system.

Bureaucracy is the rule of officials. Initially, government representatives were called bureaucracy, and then officials in other large organizations began to be called this.

Official organizations have different kinds. These include business (commercial) organizations and so-called total organizations (created by state, religious and other government institutions to solve important social problems). Total organizations are hospitals, sanatoriums, prisons, barracks, monasteries and other similar objects.

Sometimes simple organizations (have one goal) and complex organizations (have several interrelated goals) are distinguished.

Every social organization strives to ensure that its members can satisfy their basic needs. This desire results in a certain practice, which is consolidated through social institutions. The process of creating new social institutions is called institutionalization.

Social institutions- a stable set of organizations, social roles, technologies and rules of behavior, norms and values, focused on meeting the needs of people and regulating relations in society.

We can name the characteristics common to all social institutions:

1) specially created institutions (organizations) within which the activities of social institutions develop;

2) availability material resources, with the help of which the functioning of a social institution is ensured;

3) a set of social norms, rules, regulations, with the help of which the compliance of citizens’ behavior with the interests of society is monitored;

4) the existence of a system of values ​​adopted for the ideological justification of the desired behavior of citizens;

5) the use of sanctions and incentives to regulate relations within a social institution.

There are main groups of needs on the basis of which social institutions are formed:

Reproduction and education of new members of society;

Development of the social and professional structure of society;

Preserving life and maintaining people's health;

Production and distribution of goods and services;

Regulation of political relations in society;

Preservation cultural values and norms;

Satisfying religious needs.

According to the needs listed above, social institutions are formed: family, education, health care, economic institutions, political institutions, socio-cultural institutions, religious institutions.

There are many social institutions in any society. They are often divided into formal (created officially, usually within the framework of the state, have strictly defined boundaries) and informal (do not have strict regulation, presuppose a certain freedom of choice from possible options behavior).