Mir (orbital station). Orbital station “Mir”
On February 20, 1986, the first module of the Mir station was launched into orbit, which for many years became a symbol of Soviet and then Russian space exploration. It has not existed for more than ten years, but its memory will remain in history. And today we will tell you about the most significant facts and events concerning the Mir orbital station.
Base unit
BB base block - first component space station"World". It was assembled in April 1985, and since May 12, 1985 has been subjected to numerous tests on the assembly stand. As a result, the unit has been significantly improved, especially its on-board cable system.
To replace the still flying OKS Salyut-7, it was launched into orbit by the Proton launch vehicle of the tenth OKS Mir (DOS-7) on February 20, 1986. This "foundation" of the station is similar in size and appearance to the orbital stations of the "series" Salyut", as it is based on the Salyut-6 and Salyut-7 projects. At the same time, there were many fundamental differences, which included more powerful solar panels and advanced computers at that time.
The basis was a sealed working compartment with a central control post and communications equipment. Comfort for the crew was provided by two individual cabins and a common wardroom with a work desk and devices for heating water and food. There was a treadmill and bicycle ergometer nearby. A portable airlock chamber was built into the wall of the housing. On the outer surface of the working compartment there were 2 rotating solar panels and a fixed third one, mounted by the astronauts during the flight. In front of the working compartment there is a sealed transition compartment that can serve as a gateway to exit into open space. It had five docking ports for connection with transport ships and scientific modules. Behind the working compartment there is a leaky aggregate compartment. It contains a propulsion system with fuel tanks. In the middle of the compartment is a sealed transition chamber ending in a docking unit to which the Kvant module was connected during the flight.
The basic module had two engines located in the aft section, which were designed specifically for orbital maneuvers. Each engine was capable of pushing 300 kg. However, after the Kvant-1 module arrived at the station, both engines could not fully function, since the aft port was occupied. Outside the assembly compartment, on a rotating rod, there was a highly directional antenna that provided communication through a relay satellite located in geostationary orbit.
The main purpose of the Basic Module was to provide conditions for the life activities of astronauts on board the station. The astronauts could watch films that were delivered to the station, read books - the station had an extensive library
"Kvant-1"
In the spring of 1987, the Kvant-1 module was launched into orbit. It became a kind of space station for Mir. The docking with Kvant became one of the first emergency situations for Mir. In order to securely attach the Kvant to the complex, the cosmonauts had to make an unplanned spacewalk. Structurally, the module was a single pressurized compartment with two hatches, one of which is a working port for receiving transport ships. Around it there was a complex of astrophysical instruments, mainly for studying X-ray sources inaccessible to observations from Earth. On the outer surface, the astronauts mounted two mounting points for rotating reusable solar panels, as well as a work platform on which large-sized farms were installed. At the end of one of them there was an external propulsion unit (VPU).
The main parameters of the Quantum module are as follows:
Weight, kg 11050
Length, m 5.8
Maximum diameter, m 4.15
Volume under atmospheric pressure, cubic meters. m 40
Area of solar panels, sq. m 1
Output power, kW 6
The Kvant-1 module was divided into two sections: a laboratory filled with air, and equipment placed in an unpressurized airless space. The laboratory room, in turn, was divided into a compartment for instruments and a living compartment, which were separated internal partition. The laboratory compartment was connected to the station premises through an airlock chamber. Voltage stabilizers were located in the section that was not filled with air. The astronaut can monitor the observations from a room inside the module filled with air at atmospheric pressure. This 11-ton module contained astrophysics instruments, life support and altitude control equipment. Quantum also made it possible to conduct biotechnological experiments in the field of antiviral drugs and fractions.
The complex of scientific equipment of the Roentgen observatory was controlled by teams from the Earth, but the operating mode of the scientific instruments was determined by the peculiarities of the functioning of the Mir station. The station's near-Earth orbit was low-apogee (altitude above the earth's surface about 400 km) and practically circular, with an orbital period of 92 minutes. The orbital plane is inclined to the equator by approximately 52°, so twice during the period the station passed through radiation belts - high-latitude regions where magnetic field The Earth retains charged particles with energies sufficient to be detected by the sensitive detectors of the observatory instruments. Due to the high background they created during the passage of the radiation belts, the complex of scientific instruments was always turned off.
Another feature was the rigid connection of the Kvant module with the other blocks of the Mir complex (the astrophysical instruments of the module are directed towards the -Y axis). Therefore, pointing scientific instruments to sources of cosmic radiation was carried out by turning the entire station, as a rule, with the help of electromechanical gyrodynes (gyros). However, the station itself must be oriented in a certain way in relation to the Sun (usually the position is maintained with the -X axis towards the Sun, sometimes with the +X axis), otherwise the energy production from solar panels will decrease. In addition, station turns at large angles led to irrational consumption of the working fluid, especially in last years, when the modules docked to the station gave it significant moments of inertia due to its 10-meter length in a cross-shaped configuration.
In March 1988, the star sensor of the TTM telescope failed, as a result of which information about the pointing of astrophysical instruments during observations ceased to be received. However, this breakdown did not significantly affect the operation of the observatory, since the pointing problem was solved without replacing the sensor. Since all four instruments are rigidly interconnected, the efficiency of the HEXE, PULSAR X-1 and GSPS spectrometers began to be calculated by the location of the source in the field of view of the TTM telescope. The mathematical software for constructing the image and spectra of this device was prepared by young scientists, now doctors of physics and mathematics. Sciences M.R.Gilfanrv and E.M.Churazov. After the launch of the Granat satellite in December 1989, K.N. took over the baton of successful work with the TTM device. Borozdin (now Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences) and his group. The joint work of "Granat" and "Kvant" made it possible to significantly increase the efficiency of astrophysical research, since the scientific tasks of both missions were determined by the Department of High Energy Astrophysics.
In November 1989, the operation of the Kvant module was temporarily interrupted for the period of reconfiguration of the Mir station, when two additional modules: "Kvant-2" and "Crystal". Since the end of 1990, regular observations of the Roentgen observatory were resumed, however, due to the increase in the volume of work at the station and more stringent restrictions on its orientation, the average annual number of sessions after 1990 decreased significantly and more than 2 sessions were not carried out in a row, whereas in 1988 - In 1989, up to 8-10 sessions were sometimes organized per day.
The 3rd module (retrofit, “Kvant-2”) was launched into orbit by the Proton launch vehicle on November 26, 1989, 13:01:41 (UTC) from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, from launch complex No. 200L. This block is also called the retrofitting module; it contains a significant amount of equipment necessary for the station’s life support systems and creating additional comfort for its inhabitants. The airlock compartment is used as spacesuit storage and as a hangar for the astronaut's autonomous means of transportation.
The spacecraft was launched into orbit with the following parameters:
circulation period - 89.3 minutes;
minimum distance from the Earth's surface (at perigee) - 221 km;
the maximum distance from the Earth's surface (at apogee) is 339 km.
On December 6, it was docked to the axial docking unit of the transition compartment of the base unit, then, using a manipulator, the module was transferred to the side docking unit of the transition compartment.
Intended to retrofit the Mir station with life support systems for astronauts and increase the power supply of the orbital complex. The module was equipped with motion control systems using power gyroscopes, power supply systems, new installations for oxygen production and water regeneration, household appliances, retrofitting the station with scientific equipment, equipment and providing crew spacewalks, as well as for conducting various scientific research and experiments. The module consisted of three sealed compartments: instrument-cargo, instrument-scientific, and a special airlock with an outward-opening exit hatch with a diameter of 1000 mm.
The module had one active docking unit installed along its longitudinal axis on the instrument and cargo compartment. The Kvant-2 module and all subsequent modules were docked to the axial docking unit of the transition compartment of the base unit (-X axis), then using a manipulator the module was transferred to the side docking unit of the transition compartment. The standard position of the Kvant-2 module as part of the Mir station is the Y axis.
:
Registration number 1989-093A/20335
Start date and time (universal time) 13h.01m.41s. 11/26/1989
Launch vehicle Proton-K Vehicle mass (kg) 19050
The module is also designed for conducting biological research.
Source:
Module “Crystal”
The 4th module (docking and technological, “Crystal”) was launched on May 31, 1990 at 10:33:20 (UTC) from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, launch complex No. 200L, Proton 8K82K launch vehicle with DM2 upper stage. The module housed mainly scientific and technological equipment to study the processes of obtaining new materials under conditions of weightlessness (microgravity). In addition, two nodes of the androgynous-peripheral type are installed, one of which is connected to the docking compartment, and the other is free. On the outer surface there are two rotating reusable solar batteries (both will be transferred to the Kvant module).
SC type "TsM-T 77KST", ser. No. 17201 was launched into orbit with the following parameters:
orbital inclination - 51.6 degrees;
circulation period - 92.4 minutes;
minimum distance from the Earth's surface (at perigee) - 388 km;
maximum distance from the Earth's surface (at apogee) - 397 km
On June 10, 1990, on the second attempt, Kristall was docked with Mir (the first attempt failed due to the failure of one of the module’s orientation engines). The docking, as before, was carried out to the axial node of the transition compartment, after which the module was transferred to one of the side nodes using its own manipulator.
During the work on the Mir-Shuttle program, this module, which has a peripheral docking unit of the APAS type, was again moved to the axial unit using a manipulator, and solar panels were removed from its body.
The Soviet space shuttles of the Buran family were supposed to dock with the Kristall, but work on them had already been practically curtailed by that time.
The "Crystal" module was intended for testing new technologies, obtaining structural materials, semiconductors and biological products with improved properties under zero-gravity conditions. The androgynous docking unit on the "Crystal" module was intended for docking with reusable spacecraft such as "Buran" and "Shuttle", equipped with androgynous-peripheral docking units. In June 1995, it was used to dock with the USS Atlantis. The docking and technological module "Crystal" was a single sealed compartment of large volume with equipment. On its outer surface there were remote control units, fuel tanks, battery panels with autonomous orientation to the sun, as well as various antennas and sensors. The module was also used as a cargo supply ship to deliver fuel, consumables and equipment into orbit.
The module consisted of two sealed compartments: instrument-cargo and transition-docking. The module had three docking units: an axial active one - on the instrument-cargo compartment and two androgynous-peripheral types - on the transition-docking compartment (axial and lateral). Until May 27, 1995, the "Crystal" module was located on the side docking unit intended for the "Spectrum" module (-Y axis). Then it was transferred to the axial docking unit (-X axis) and on 05/30/1995 moved to its regular place (-Z axis). On 06/10/1995 it was again transferred to the axial unit (-X axis) to ensure docking with the American spacecraft Atlantis STS-71, on 07/17/1995 it was returned to its normal position (-Z axis).
Brief characteristics of the module
Registration number 1990-048A / 20635
Start date and time (universal time) 10:33:20. 05/31/1990
Launch site Baikonur, site 200L
Proton-K launch vehicle
Ship weight (kg) 18720
Module “Spectrum”
The 5th module (geophysical, “Spectrum”) was launched on May 20, 1995. The module’s equipment made it possible to conduct environmental monitoring of the atmosphere, ocean, earth’s surface, medical and biological research, etc. To bring experimental samples to the outer surface, it was planned to install a Pelican copying manipulator, working in conjunction with an airlock chamber. 4 rotating solar panels were installed on the surface of the module.
"SPECTRUM", a research module, was a single sealed compartment of large volume with equipment. On its outer surface there were remote control units, fuel tanks, four battery panels with autonomous orientation to the sun, antennas and sensors.
Manufacturing of the module, which began in 1987, was practically completed (without installing equipment intended for Department of Defense programs) by the end of 1991. However, since March 1992, due to the onset of the economic crisis, the module was “mothballed.”
To complete work on Spectrum in mid-1993, the State Research and Production Space Center named after M.V. Khrunichev and RSC Energia named after S.P. Korolev came up with a proposal to re-equip the module and turned to their foreign partners for this. As a result of negotiations with NASA, a decision was quickly made to install American medical equipment used in the Mir-Shuttle program on the module, as well as to retrofit it with a second pair of solar panels. At the same time, according to the terms of the contract, the completion, preparation and launch of the Spectrum had to be completed before the first docking of the Mir and the Shuttle in the summer of 1995.
Tight deadlines required the specialists of the State Research and Production Center named after M.V. Khrunichev to work hard on correction design documentation, manufacturing batteries and spacers to accommodate them, conducting the necessary strength tests, installing US equipment and repeating comprehensive module checks. At the same time, RSC Energia specialists were preparing new equipment at Baikonur workplace in the MIC of the Buran orbital ship on site 254.
On May 26, on the first attempt, it was docked with the Mir, and then, similar to its predecessors, it was transferred from the axial to the side node, vacated for it by the Kristall.
The Spectrum module was intended for research natural resources the Earth, the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere, the orbital complex's own external atmosphere, geophysical processes of natural and artificial origin in near-Earth space and in the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere, for conducting medical and biological research under the joint Russian-American programs "Mir-Shuttle" and "Mir" -NASA", to equip the station with additional sources of electricity.
In addition to the listed tasks, the Spektr module was used as a cargo supply ship and delivered fuel reserves, consumables and additional equipment to the Mir orbital complex. The module consisted of two compartments: a sealed instrument-cargo compartment and an unsealed one, on which two main and two additional solar panels and scientific equipment were installed. The module had one active docking unit located along its longitudinal axis on the instrument and cargo compartment. The standard position of the Spektr module as part of the Mir station is the -Y axis. On June 25, 1997, as a result of a collision with the Progress M-34 cargo ship, the Spectr module was depressurized and, practically, “switched off” from the complex’s operation. The unmanned Progress spacecraft went off course and crashed into the Spektr module. The station lost its seal, and the Spectra's solar panels were partially destroyed. The team managed to seal the Spectrum by closing the hatch leading into it before the pressure at the station dropped to critically low levels. The internal volume of the module was isolated from the living compartment.
Brief characteristics of the module
Registration number 1995-024A / 23579
Start date and time (universal time) 03h.33m.22s. 05/20/1995
Proton-K launch vehicle
Ship weight (kg) 17840
Docking module
The 6th module (docking) was docked on November 15, 1995. This relatively small module was created specifically for docking the Atlantis spacecraft, and was delivered to Mir by the American Space Shuttle.
Docking compartment (SD) (316GK) - was intended to ensure the docking of the Shuttle series MTKS with the Mir spacecraft. The CO was a cylindrical structure with a diameter of about 2.9 m and a length of about 5 m and was equipped with systems that made it possible to ensure the work of the crew and monitor its condition, in particular: support systems temperature regime, television, telemetry, automation, lighting. The space inside the CO allowed the crew to work and place equipment during the delivery of CO to the Mir space station. Additional solar batteries were attached to the surface of the CO, which, after docking it with the Mir spacecraft, were transferred by the crew to the Kvant module, means of capturing CO by the MTKS manipulator of the Shuttle series, and means of ensuring docking. The CO was delivered into the orbit of the MTKS Atlantis (STS-74) and, using its own manipulator and the axial androgynous peripheral docking unit (APAS-2), was docked to the docking unit on the airlock chamber of the MTKS Atlantis, and then, the latter, together with The CO was docked to the docking assembly of the Crystal module (-Z axis) using the androgynous peripheral docking assembly (APAS-1). SO 316GK seemed to extend the “Crystal” module, which made it possible to dock the American MTKS series with the “Mir” spacecraft without redocking the “Crystal” module to the axial docking unit of the base unit (the “-X” axis). power supply for all CO systems was provided from the Mir spacecraft through connectors in the APAS-1 unit.
Module “Nature”
The 7th module (scientific, “Priroda”) was launched into orbit on April 23, 1996 and docked on April 26, 1996. This block contains high-precision observation instruments for the earth’s surface in various spectral ranges. The module also included about a ton of American equipment for studying human behavior during long-term space flight.
Launching the "Nature" module completed the assembly of OK "Mir".
The "Nature" module was intended to conduct scientific research and experiments on the study of the Earth's natural resources, the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, cosmic radiation, geophysical processes of natural and artificial origin in near-Earth space and the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere.
The module consisted of one sealed instrument and cargo compartment. The module had one active docking unit located along its longitudinal axis. The standard position of the "Nature" module as part of the "Mir" station is the Z axis.
On board the Priroda module, equipment was installed for studying the Earth from space and experiments in the field of materials science. Its main difference from other “cubes” from which “Mir” was built is that “Priroda” was not equipped with its own solar panels. The research module "Nature" was a single sealed compartment of large volume with equipment. On its outer surface there were remote control units, fuel tanks, antennas and sensors. It had no solar panels and used 168 lithium power sources installed internally.
During its creation, the Nature module also underwent significant changes, especially in equipment. A number of devices were installed on it foreign countries, which, under the terms of a number of concluded contracts, quite strictly limited the time frame for its preparation and launch.
At the beginning of 1996, the Priroda module arrived at site 254 of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. His intensive four-month pre-launch preparation was not easy. Particularly difficult was the work of finding and eliminating a leak in one of the module’s lithium batteries, which could emit very harmful gases (sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride). There were also a number of other comments. All of them were eliminated and on April 23, 1996, with the help of Proton-K, the module was successfully launched into orbit.
Before docking with the Mir complex, a failure occurred in the module’s power supply system, depriving it of half its power supply. Inability to recharge on-board batteries due to lack of solar panels significantly complicated the docking, giving it only one chance to complete it. However, on April 26, 1996, on the first attempt, the module was successfully docked with the complex and, after redocking, occupied the last free side node on the transition compartment of the base unit.
After docking the Priroda module, the Mir orbital complex acquired its full configuration. Its formation, of course, moved more slowly than desired (the launches of the base unit and the fifth module are separated by almost 10 years). But all this time, intensive work was going on on board in manned mode, and the Mir itself was systematically “retrofitted” with smaller elements - trusses, additional batteries, remote controls and various scientific instruments, the delivery of which was successfully ensured by Progress-class cargo ships. .
Brief characteristics of the module
Registration number 1996-023A / 23848
Start date and time (universal time) 11h.48m.50s. 04/23/1996
Launch site Baikonur, site 81L
Proton-K launch vehicle
Ship weight (kg) 18630
Exactly 20 years ago, a series of strange accidents at the Russian Mir station led to the decision to begin decommissioning it, followed by flooding. This unique anniversary would have gone unnoticed if not for the premiere of yet another Hollywood “space horror” film. The fantastic blockbuster “Alive” tells about the tragic death of the ISS crew in the fight against an unusual Martian microorganism. This rather hackneyed theme, brilliantly explored by Riddy Scott in the epic about “alien” monsters and by John Bruno in “Virus,” unexpectedly received an original continuation. The intrigue was generated by the words of the creator of “Alive,” Daniel Espinosa, that the plot was inspired by one of the versions of the death of the predecessor of the ISS, the Mir station.
"Domino effect" in emergency situations
At the end of July 1997, one of the leaders of the Mir program, Sergei Krikalev, held a sensational press conference. On it, he spoke about a series of mysterious accidents.
It all started on February 23, 1997, when a fire broke out during a crew change. The reason was a substandard pyrolysis bomb, used to replenish oxygen, which was lit after six people had accumulated on board. Although the fire was extinguished, the thermoregulation system began to malfunction. As a result, the new crew consisting of Vasily Tsibliev, Alexander Lazutkin and Jerry Linenger had to inhale refrigerant vapors for a week and “steam” at a temperature of 30 degrees. The thermal control system was repaired only by mid-June.
On June 25, 1997, during maneuvers of the Progress M-34 truck, it collided with the Spectr scientific module. As a result, a crack formed through which air began to escape. I had to batten down the passage hatch to the Spectrum, but then the voltage at the station began to drop. It turned out that the cables and solar panels of the Spectrum were damaged, giving almost
a third of electricity.
The next morning the astronauts woke up in the dark and cold. It turned out that at night the on-board computer lost contact with the position sensors and switched to emergency mode, turning off the heating and orientation system. So the station lost the optimal arrangement of solar panels, and the batteries were discharged.
In the end, the station was oriented by the engines of the moored Soyuz TM-25 spacecraft, and the solar panels recharged the batteries.
What about the on-board computer?
On August 5, Anatoly Solovyov and Pavel Vinogradov arrived to replace Tsibliev and Lazutkin with repair equipment to restore the Mir. The new shift encountered difficulties already during docking, when the automation did not work and Solovyov had to dock manually. He carried out a maneuver and managed to save the situation by taking over control during the next computer failure while redocking the Progress M-35.
Then the astronauts began to repair the on-board computer, recalling the HAL 9000 supercomputer, which destroyed almost the entire crew of the spacecraft in Arthur C. Clarke’s novel “2001: A Space Odyssey.” The computer was debugged and work began on repairing the electrolysis generator to produce oxygen.
After this, the cosmonauts put on their spacesuits and entered the depressurized module through the docking port's transition gate. They managed to restore the cables leading to the Spectra's solar panels. Now it was necessary to find out how many holes the station received. However, checking suspicious places yielded nothing. The search for an air leak had to be continued. At this time, the main computer failures resumed. They managed to assemble it from two faulty ones, but the problems followed one after another, as if the spirit of HAL 9000 had truly entered the computer...
All these events led to the curtailment of work at the station. According to the official version, the situation at the station was considered by major space technology experts together with designers and manufacturers. They came to the conclusion that “Mir” had long ago exhausted its resources, and further stay on it was simply becoming dangerous.
Alternative version
Many alternative space historians believe that the cause of the death of the Mir station was the events during the 14th main expedition, which lasted from July 1, 1993 to January 14, 1994. Then Vasily Tsibliev, Alexander Serebrov and the Frenchman Jean-Pierre Haignere arrived at the station.
While checking equipment for spacewalks left over from the previous crew, flight engineer Serebrov opened the backpack of one of the spacesuits, and it was immediately enveloped in a cloud of greenish dust. It turned out that inner surface Several layers of strange mold had formed on the suit.
The team had to spend a long time cleaning the compartment where the spacesuits were stored using improvised means. Finally, almost all the mold spores from the air and the suit were sent to the dust collector. However, after a few hours, the water from the regeneration system acquired a putrid taste, and a musty smell appeared in the compartments.
The astronauts sent a request to the Mission Control Center to change the regeneration column, but on Earth the situation was not considered critical. Then the astronauts themselves disassembled the column and saw that the replaceable filter was clogged with yellow-green crumbs.
Subsequently, the mold, which mutated in weightlessness and under the influence of cosmic radiation, began to destroy the station’s equipment. Fire detectors and air analyzers were particularly affected. This is indirectly confirmed by analyzes from the laboratory of environmental microbiology and antimicrobial protection of the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in which extensive traces of mold were found on some of the instruments returned from the station.
Biorisk program
At the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences, a target program on studying the behavior of microorganisms in space conditions. It was called "Biorisk".
During the experiments, spores of microscopic fungi were sent into space as the most resistant to air environment and radiation. They were placed on metal structures that made up the outer shell of the spacecraft. The samples were then placed in a Petri dish, separated from the vacuum by a membrane filter. The disputes spent a year and a half in space conditions. When they were returned to Earth and placed in a nutrient medium, the spores immediately began to grow and multiply.
All this shed new light on the old problem of disinfection of space technology. Indeed, in the event of the return of expeditions that have visited various parts solar system, terrestrial microorganisms can change significantly.
Space infection
After returning to Earth, the astronauts of the 14th expedition developed symptoms of a strange disease. They manifested themselves especially strongly in Serebrov, who complained of abdominal pain, nausea and constant weakness. The astronaut turned to the Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology for help, but doctors were unable to give him an accurate diagnosis.
On March 23, 2001, the record-breaking station, which operated three times longer than originally planned, was sunk in the Pacific Ocean, near the Fiji Islands. Scientists assured that the station underwent heat treatment during flight through the atmosphere. Not a single microbe can survive in such an oven. But they admitted: the properties of the mold that mutated in weightlessness are not fully known. What if the space microorganisms on the flooded station survived? Is there a threat that an unknown infection will come to earth from the depths of the water?
Mutants or conspiracy theories?
A couple of years ago, many media reported the sensational discovery of traces of some microorganisms on the external structures of the ISS. Upon closer inspection, it turned out that these organisms were plankton, which in an unknown way got onto the lining of the station.
Astrobiologists who study all life in space have put forward a theory according to which plankton reached the ISS on one of the spacecraft. For example, this could well happen at NASA's main rocket launch site in Florida at Cape Canaveral, where strong winds often blow from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico.
According to another hypothesis, expressed many years ago by the patriarch of British science fiction, Brian Aldiss, in the novel “The Long Twilight of the Earth,” microorganisms are constantly carried tens of kilometers upward by atmospheric currents and travel thousands of kilometers.
Nevertheless, the mysteries of mold on the Mir station and plankton on the ISS have never found explanations that would suit everyone.
And the strange death of the Mir station, it turns out, has a conspiracy theory. It was voiced by Czech space historian Karel Patzner in the best-selling book “The Secret Race for the Moon.” In his opinion, the reasons for the hasty destruction of the station are the most banal - corruption and embezzlement. According to Patzner, the costs of maintaining this facility went into the pockets of the leadership of the space industry, and the station accumulated many unique instruments and equipment that existed only on paper.
Traces had to be quickly covered, and the legend of mold was used to prepare public opinion. In general, as they say in the popular series, the truth is somewhere nearby.
3658
Although humanity has abandoned flights to the Moon, it has nevertheless learned to build real “space houses,” as evidenced by the well-known “Mir Station” project. Today I want to tell you some interesting facts about this space station, which operated for 15 years instead of the planned three years.
96 people visited the station. There were 70 spacewalks with a total duration of 330 hours. The station was called a great achievement of the Russians. We won... if we hadn't lost.
The first 20-ton base module of the Mir station was launched into orbit in February 1986. Mir was supposed to be the embodiment of the eternal dream of science fiction writers about a space village. Initially, the station was built so that more and more modules could be constantly added to it. The launch of "Mir" was timed to coincide with the XXVII Congress of the CPSU.
2
3
In the spring of 1987, the Kvant-1 module was launched into orbit. It became a kind of space station for Mir. The docking with Kvant became one of the first emergency situations for Mir. In order to securely attach the Kvant to the complex, the cosmonauts had to make an unplanned spacewalk.
4
In June, the Kristall module was delivered into orbit. An additional docking station was installed on it, which, according to the designers, should serve as a gateway for receiving the Buran ship.
5
This year, the first journalist visited the station - Japanese Toyohiro Akiyama. His live reports were broadcast on Japanese TV. In the first minutes of Toyohiro's stay in orbit, it became clear that he was suffering from "space sickness" - a type of sea sickness. So his flight was not particularly effective. In March of the same year, Mir experienced another shock. It was only by a miracle that we managed to avoid a collision with the Progress space truck. The distance between the devices at some point was only a few meters - and this is when escape velocity eight kilometers per second.
6
7
In December, a huge “star sail” was deployed on the Progress automatic ship. This is how the Znamya-2 experiment began. Russian scientists hoped that they would be able to illuminate large areas of the earth with the rays of the sun reflected from this sail. However, the eight panels that made up the “sail” did not open completely. Because of this, the area was illuminated much weaker than scientists expected.
9
In January, the Soyuz TM-17 spacecraft departing from the station collided with the Kristall module. Later it turned out that the cause of the accident was overload: the cosmonauts returning to earth took too many souvenirs from the station with them, and the Soyuz lost control.+
10
The year is 1995. In February, the American reusable spacecraft Discovery arrived at the Mir station. On board the shuttle was a new docking port for receiving NASA spacecraft. In May, Mir docked with the Spektr module with equipment for studying the Earth from space. Over its short history, Spectrum has experienced several emergency situations and one fatal disaster.
The year is 1996. With the inclusion of the “Nature” module in the complex, the installation of the station was completed. It took ten years - three times longer than Mir's estimated time in orbit.
11
It became the most difficult year for the entire Mir complex. In 1997, the station almost suffered disaster several times. In January, a fire occurred on board - the cosmonauts were forced to put on breathing masks. The smoke even spread aboard the Soyuz spacecraft. The fire was extinguished a few seconds before the decision to evacuate was made. And in June, the unmanned Progress cargo ship went off course and crashed into the Spektr module. The station has lost its seal. The team managed to block the Spectrum (close the hatch leading into it) before the pressure at the station dropped to a critically low level. In July, Mir was almost left without power supply - one of the crew members accidentally disconnected the cable of the on-board computer, and the station went into an uncontrolled drift. In August, the oxygen generators failed - the crew had to use emergency air reserves. On Earth they began to say that the aging station should be converted to unmanned mode.
12
In Russia, many did not even want to think about abandoning the operation of Mir. The search for foreign investors began. However, foreign countries were in no hurry to help Mir. In August, the cosmonauts of the 27th expedition transferred the Mir station to unmanned mode. The reason is the lack of government funding.
13
All eyes were turned this year to the American entrepreneur Walt Andersson. He announced his readiness to invest $20 million in the creation of the MirCorp company, a company that intended to engage in the commercial operation of the station. The management of Rosaviakosmos was confident that it would find the owner of a tight wallet willing to invest money in the famous "World". A sponsor was actually found quickly. A certain wealthy Welshman, Peter Llewellyn, stated that he was ready not only to pay for his trip to Mir and back, but also to allocate an amount sufficient to ensure the operation of the complex in manned mode for a year. That is, at least 200 million dollars. The euphoria from the quick success was so great that the leaders of the Russian space industry did not pay attention to skeptical remarks in the Western press, where Llewellyn was called an adventurer. The press was right. “Tourist” arrived at the Cosmonaut Training Center and began training, although not a penny was ever received into the agency’s account. When Llewellyn was reminded of his obligations, he was offended and left. The adventure ended ingloriously. What happened next is well known. “Mir” was transferred to unmanned mode, the “Mir” Rescue Fund was created, which collected a small amount of donations. Although proposals for its use were very different. There was such a thing - to establish a space sex industry. Some sources indicate that in zero gravity males function fantastically flawlessly. But it never worked out to make the Mir station commercial - the MirCorp project failed miserably due to the lack of customers. It was also not possible to collect money from ordinary Russians - mostly meager transfers from pensioners were transferred to a specially opened account. The Russian government has made an official decision to complete the project. Authorities announced that the Mir would be sunk in the Pacific Ocean in March 2001.
14
The year is 2001. On March 23, the station was deorbited. At 05:23 Moscow time, the Mir engines were given the order to slow down. At around 6 a.m. GMT, Mir entered the atmosphere several thousand kilometers east of Australia. Most of the 140-ton structure burned up upon re-entry. Only fragments of the station reached the ground. Some were comparable in size to a subcompact car. The fragments of the Mir fell into the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and Chile. About 1,500 pieces of debris splashed down in an area covering several thousand square kilometers - in a kind of graveyard for Russian spaceships. Since 1978, 85 orbital structures have ended their existence in this region, including several space stations. Passengers on two planes witnessed the fall of hot debris into ocean waters. Tickets for these unique flights cost up to 10 thousand dollars. Among the spectators were several Russian and American cosmonauts who had previously visited Mir.
Nowadays, many agree that automata controlled from the Earth are much better than a “living” person in coping with the functions of a space laboratory assistant, signalman, and even a spy. In this sense, the end of the work of the Mir station became a landmark event, designed to mark the end of the next stage of manned orbital astronautics.
15
There were 15 expeditions working on Mir. 14 - with international crews from the USA, Syria, Bulgaria, Afghanistan, France, Japan, Great Britain, Austria and Germany. During the operation of Mir, an absolute world record was set for the duration of a person's stay in space flight (Valery Polyakov - 438 days). Among women, the world record for the duration of a space flight was set by American Shannon Lucid (188 days).
Briefly about the article: The ISS is humanity's most expensive and ambitious project on the path to space exploration. However, the construction of the station is in full swing, and it is still unknown what will happen to it in a couple of years. We talk about the creation of the ISS and plans for its completion.
Space house
International Space Station
You remain in charge. But don't touch anything.
A joke made by Russian cosmonauts about American Shannon Lucid, which they repeated every time they exited the Mir station into outer space (1996).
Back in 1952, German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun said that humanity would very soon need space stations: once it goes into space, it will be unstoppable. And for the systematic exploration of the Universe, orbital houses are needed. On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union launched the first space station in human history, Salyut 1. It was only 15 meters long, and the volume of habitable space was 90 square meters. By today's standards, the pioneers flew into space on unreliable scrap metal stuffed with radio tubes, but then it seemed that there were no more barriers for humans in space. Now, 30 years later, there is only one habitable object hanging over the planet - “International Space Station.”
It is the largest, most advanced, but at the same time the most expensive station among all that have ever been launched. Questions are increasingly being asked: do people need it? Like, what do we really need in space if there are still so many problems on Earth? Perhaps it’s worth figuring out what this ambitious project is?
The roar of the cosmodrome
The International Space Station (ISS) is a joint project of 6 space agencies: Federal Space Agency (Russia), National Aeronautics and Space Agency (USA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Administration (JAXA), Canadian Space Agency (CSA/ASC), Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and European Space Agency (ESA).
However, not all members of the latter took part in the ISS project - Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Austria and Finland refused, and Greece and Luxembourg joined later. In fact, the ISS is based on a synthesis of failed projects - the Russian Mir-2 station and the American Liberty station.
Work on the creation of the ISS began in 1993. The Mir station was launched on February 19, 1986 and had guarantee period operation for 5 years. In fact, she spent 15 years in orbit - due to the fact that the country simply did not have the money to launch the Mir-2 project. The Americans had similar problems - the Cold War ended, and their Freedom station, on the design alone of which about 20 billion dollars had already been spent, was out of work.
Russia had 25 years of experience working with orbital stations and unique methods for long-term (over a year) human stay in space. In addition, the USSR and the USA had good experience of working together on board the Mir station. In conditions when no country could independently build an expensive orbital station, the ISS became the only alternative.
On March 15, 1993, representatives of the Russian Space Agency and the scientific and production association Energia approached NASA with a proposal to create the ISS. On September 2, a corresponding government agreement was signed, and by November 1, a detailed work plan was prepared. Financial issues of interaction (supply of equipment) were resolved in the summer of 1994, and 16 countries joined the project.
What's in your name?The name “ISS” was born in controversy. The first crew of the station, at the suggestion of the Americans, gave it the name “Alpha Station” and used it for some time in communication sessions. Russia did not agree with this option, since “Alpha” in a figurative sense meant “first,” although Soviet Union has already launched 8 space stations (7 Salyut and Mir), and the Americans also experimented with their Skylab. On our part, the name “Atlant” was proposed, but the Americans rejected it for two reasons - firstly, it was too similar to the name of their shuttle “Atlantis”, and secondly, it was associated with the mythical Atlantis, which, as is known, sank . It was decided to settle on the phrase “International Space Station” - not too sonorous, but a compromise option. |
Go!
The deployment of the ISS was started by Russia on November 20, 1998. The Proton rocket launched the Zarya functional cargo block into orbit, which, along with the American docking module NODE-1, delivered into space on December 5 of the same year by the Endever shuttle, formed the “backbone” of the ISS.
"Zarya"- the successor of the Soviet TKS (transport supply ship), designed to serve the Almaz battle stations. At the first stage of assembling the ISS, it became a source of electricity, an equipment warehouse, and a means of navigation and orbit adjustment. All other modules of the ISS now have a more specific specialization, while Zarya is almost universal and in the future will serve as a storage facility (power, fuel, instruments).
Officially, Zarya is owned by the United States - they paid for its creation - but in fact the module was assembled from 1994 to 1998 at the Khrunichev State Space Center. It was included in the ISS instead of the Bus-1 module, designed by the American corporation Lockheed, because it cost 450 million dollars versus 220 million for Zarya.
Zarya has three docking gates - one at each end and one at the side. Its solar panels reach 10.67 meters in length and 3.35 meters in width. In addition, the module has six nickel-cadmium batteries capable of delivering about 3 kilowatts of power (at first there were problems charging them).
Along the outer perimeter of the module there are 16 fuel tanks with a total volume of 6 cubic meters (5700 kilograms of fuel), 24 rotary jet engines big size, 12 small ones, as well as 2 main engines for serious orbital maneuvers. Zarya is capable of autonomous (unmanned) flight for 6 months, but due to delays with the Russian Zvezda service module, it had to fly empty for 2 years.
Unity module(created by the Boeing Corporation) went into space after Zarya in December 1998. Equipped with six docking airlocks, it became the central connection point for subsequent station modules. Unity is vital to the ISS. The working resources of all station modules - oxygen, water and electricity - pass through it. Also installed on “Unity” basic system radio communications, allowing the use of Zarya’s communication capabilities to communicate with the Earth.
Service module “Zvezda”- the main Russian segment of the ISS - launched on July 12, 2000 and docked with Zarya 2 weeks later. Its frame was built back in the 1980s for the Mir-2 project (the design of the Zvezda is very reminiscent of the first Salyut stations, and its design features are similar to the Mir station).
Simply put, this module is housing for astronauts. It is equipped with life support, communications, control, data processing systems, as well as a propulsion system. The total mass of the module is 19,050 kilograms, length is 13.1 meters, the span of solar panels is 29.72 meters.
“Zvezda” has two beds, an exercise bike, a treadmill, a toilet (and other hygienic installations), fridge. External view provide 14 portholes. The Russian electrolytic system “Electron” decomposes waste water. Hydrogen is removed overboard, and oxygen enters the life support system. The “Air” system works in tandem with the “Electron”, absorbing carbon dioxide.
Theoretically, waste water can be purified and reused, but this is rarely practiced on the ISS - fresh water is delivered on board by Progress cargo ships. It must be said that the Electron system malfunctioned several times and the cosmonauts had to use chemical generators - the same “oxygen candles” that once caused a fire at the Mir station.
In February 2001, a laboratory module was attached to the ISS (on one of the Unity gateways) "Destiny"(“Destiny”) is an aluminum cylinder weighing 14.5 tons, 8.5 meters long and 4.3 meters in diameter. It is equipped with five mounting racks with life support systems (each weighs 540 kilograms and can produce electricity, cool water and control air composition), as well as six racks with scientific equipment delivered a little later.
The remaining 12 empty installation spaces will be filled over time.
In May 2001, the main airlock compartment of the ISS, the Quest Joint Airlock, was attached to Unity.
This six-ton cylinder, measuring 5.5 by 4 meters, is equipped with four high-pressure cylinders (2 - oxygen, 2 - nitrogen) to compensate for the loss of air released outside, and is relatively inexpensive - only 164 million dollars.
Its working space of 34 cubic meters is used for spacewalks, and the size of the airlock allows the use of spacesuits of any type. The fact is that the design of our Orlans assumes their use only in Russian transition compartments, a similar situation with American EMUs. In this module, astronauts going into space can also rest and breathe pure oxygen to get rid of decompression sickness (with a sharp change in pressure, nitrogen, the amount of which in the tissues of our bodies reaches 1 liter, turns into a gaseous state). The last of
And finally, we cannot help but mention another module of the ISS - the baggage multi-purpose support module. Strictly speaking, there are three of them - “Leonardo”, “Raffaello” and “Donatello” (Renaissance artists, as well as three of the four Ninja Turtles). Each module is an almost equilateral cylinder (4.4 by 4.57 meters) transported on shuttles.
It can store up to 9 tons of cargo (full weight - 4082 kilograms, with a maximum load - 13154 kilograms) - supplies delivered to the ISS and waste removed from it.
All module luggage is in the normal air environment, so astronauts can reach it without using spacesuits. The luggage modules were manufactured in Italy by order of NASA and belong to the American segments of the ISS. They are used alternately.
Useful little things
In addition to the main modules, the ISS contains a large amount of additional equipment. It is smaller in size than the modules, but without it the operation of the station is impossible.
The working “arms,” or rather the “arm” of the station, is the “Canadarm2” manipulator, mounted on the ISS in April 2001. This high-tech machine, worth $600 million, is capable of moving objects weighing up to 116 tons - for example, assisting in the installation of modules, docking and unloading shuttles (their own “hands” are very similar to “Canadarm2”, only smaller and weaker).
The actual length of the manipulator is 17.6 meters, diameter is 35 centimeters. It is controlled by astronauts from a laboratory module. The most interesting thing is that “Canadarm2” is not fixed in one place and is able to move along the surface of the station, providing access to most of its parts.
In accordance with the safety requirements of the ISS project, a rescue ship is constantly on duty at the station, capable of delivering the crew to Earth if necessary.
Now this function is performed by the good old Soyuz (TMA model) - it is capable of taking 3 people on board and ensuring their vital functions for 3.2 days.
“Soyuz” have a short warranty period for staying in orbit, so they are replaced every 6 months.
The workhorses of the ISS are currently the Russian Progresses - siblings of the Soyuz, operating in unmanned mode. During the day, an astronaut consumes about 30 kilograms of cargo (food, water, hygiene products, etc.). Consequently, for a regular six-month duty at the station, one person needs 5.4 tons of supplies. It is impossible to carry so much on the Soyuz, so the station is supplied mainly by shuttles (up to 28 tons of cargo).
After the cessation of their flights, from February 1, 2003 to July 26, 2005, the entire load for the station’s clothing support lay with the Progresses (2.5 tons of load). After unloading the ship, it was filled with waste, undocked automatically and burned up in the atmosphere somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.
Crew: 2 people (as of July 2005), maximum 3
Orbit altitude: From 347.9 km to 354.1 km
Orbital inclination: 51.64 degrees
Daily revolutions around the Earth: 15.73
Distance traveled: About 1.5 billion kilometers
Average speed: 7.69 km/s
Current weight: 183.3 tons
Fuel weight: 3.9 tons Volume of living space: 425 square meters
average temperature
on board: 26.9 degrees Celsius
Estimated completion of construction: 2010 Planned lifespan: 15 years Full assembly The ISS will require 39 shuttle flights and 30 Progress flights. IN
finished form
the station will look like this: air space volume - 1200 cubic meters, weight - 419 tons, power supply - 110 kilowatts, total length of the structure - 108.4 meters (modules - 74 meters), crew - 6 people.
On February 1, 2003, the space shuttle Columbia died upon entering the dense layers of the atmosphere. The American manned flight program was suspended for 2.5 years. Considering that the station modules awaiting their turn could only be launched into orbit by shuttles, the very existence of the ISS was under threat.
Fortunately, the US and Russia were able to agree on a redistribution of costs. We took over the provision of cargo to the ISS, and the station itself was switched to standby mode - two cosmonauts were constantly on board to monitor the serviceability of the equipment.
Shuttle launches
After the successful flight of the Discovery shuttle in July-August 2005, there was hope that construction of the station would continue. First in line for launch is the twin of the “Unity” connecting module - “Node 2”. Its preliminary start date is December 2006.
The European scientific module “Columbus” will be the second: launch is scheduled for March 2007. This laboratory is already ready and waiting in the wings - it will need to be attached to “Node 2”. It boasts good anti-meteor protection, a unique apparatus for studying the physics of liquids, as well as a European physiological module (comprehensive medical examination directly on board the station).
Following “Columbus” will be the Japanese laboratory “Kibo” (“Hope”) - its launch is scheduled for September 2007. It is interesting in that it has its own mechanical manipulator, as well as a closed “terrace” where experiments can be carried out in outer space. without actually leaving the ship.
The third connecting module - “Node 3” is scheduled to go to the ISS in May 2008. In July 2009, it is planned to launch a unique rotating centrifuge module CAM (Centrifuge Accommodations Module), on board of which artificial gravity will be created in the range from 0.01 to 2 g. It is designed mainly for scientific research - permanent residence cosmonauts in conditions of gravity, so often described by science fiction writers, are not envisaged.
In March 2009, “Cupola” (“Dome”) will fly to the ISS - an Italian development, which, as its name suggests, is an armored observation dome for visual control of the station’s manipulators. For safety, the windows will be equipped with external shutters to protect against meteorites.
The last module delivered to the ISS by American shuttles will be the “Science and Power Platform” - a massive block of solar batteries on an openwork metal truss.
It will provide the station with the energy necessary for the normal functioning of the new modules. It will also feature an ERA mechanical arm.
Launches on Protons
Russian Proton rockets are expected to carry three large modules to the ISS. So far, only a very rough flight schedule is known. So, in 2007 it is planned to add to the station our spare functional cargo block (FGB-2 - Zarya’s twin), which will be turned into a multifunctional laboratory.
| In the same year, the European robotic arm ERA should be deployed by Proton. And finally, in 2009 it will be necessary to put into operation a Russian research module, functionally similar to the American “Destiny”. |
This is interesting Space stations are frequent guests in science fiction . The two most famous are “Babylon 5” from the television series of the same name and “Deep Space 9” from the “Star Trek” series. a person's stay on the space station is 437.7 days. The record was set by Valery Polyakov at the Mir station in 1994-1995. The Soviet Salyut station was originally supposed to bear the name Zarya, but it was left for the next similar project, which eventually became the ISS functional cargo block. During one of the expeditions to the ISS, a tradition arose of hanging three bills on the wall of the living module - 50 rubles, a dollar and a euro. For luck. |
* * *
The first space marriage in the history of mankind took place on the ISS - on August 10, 2003, cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko, while on board the station (it flew over New Zealand), married Ekaterina Dmitrieva (the bride was on Earth, in the USA).
There is some truth to such accusations. However, this is a very limited approach. Firstly, it does not take into account the potential profit from the development of new technologies when creating each new module of the ISS - and its instruments are truly at the forefront of science. Their modifications can be used in everyday life and can bring enormous income.
We must not forget that thanks to the ISS program, humanity has the opportunity to preserve and increase all the precious technologies and skills of manned space flights that were obtained in the second half of the 20th century at an incredible price. In the “space race” of the USSR and the USA, a lot of money was spent, many people died - all this may be in vain if we stop moving in the same direction.
"Mir" is a Soviet (later Russian) manned research orbital complex that operated from February 20, 1986 to March 23, 2001. The most important scientific discoveries were made at the Mir orbital complex, and unique technical and technological solutions were implemented. The principles laid down in the design of the Mir orbital complex and its onboard systems (modular construction, phased deployment, the ability to carry out operational maintenance and preventive measures, regular transport and technical supplies) have become a classic approach to the creation of promising manned orbital complexes of the future.
The lead developer of the Mir orbital complex, the developer of the base unit and modules of the orbital complex, the developer and manufacturer of most of their onboard systems, the designer and manufacturer of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft is the Energia Rocket and Space Corporation. S. P. Koroleva. The developer and manufacturer of the base unit and modules of the Mir orbital complex, parts of their onboard systems is the State Space Research and Production Center named after. M. V. Khrunicheva. About 200 enterprises and organizations also took part in the development and production of the base unit and modules of the Mir orbital complex, the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, their onboard systems and ground infrastructure, including: State Research and Production Rocket and Space Center "TSSKB-Progress", Central Research Institute of Mechanical Engineering, General Mechanical Engineering Design Bureau named after. V. P. Barmina, Russian Research Institute of Space Instrumentation, Research Institute of Precision Instruments, Cosmonaut Training Center named after. Yu. A. Gagarina, Russian Academy Sci. Control of the Mir orbital complex was provided by the Flight Control Center of the Central Research Institute of Mechanical Engineering.
Base unit - the main link of the entire orbital station, combining its modules into a single complex. The base unit contained control equipment for the service life support systems of the MIR-Shuttle crew. During 1995 - 1998, joint Russian-American work was carried out at the Mir station under the Mir - Shuttle and Mir - NASA programs. Orbital station and a shuttle station and scientific equipment, as well as crew rest areas. The basic unit consisted of a transition compartment with five passive docking units (one axial and four lateral), a working compartment, an intermediate chamber with one docking unit and an unpressurized unit compartment. All docking units are passive type of the pin-cone system.
Module "Quantum" was intended for carrying out astrophysical and other scientific research and experiments. The module consisted of a laboratory compartment with a transition chamber and an unpressurized compartment of scientific instruments. Maneuvering the module in orbit was ensured using a service block equipped with a propulsion system, which was detachable after docking the module with the station. The module had two docking units located along its longitudinal axis - active and passive. During autonomous flight, the passive unit was covered by a service unit. The "Kvant" module was docked to the intermediate chamber of the base block (X axis). After mechanical coupling, the tightening process could not be completed due to the fact that a foreign object was in the receiving cone of the station's docking unit. To eliminate this item, the crew required a spacewalk, which took place on April 11-12, 1986.
Module "Kvant-2" was intended to retrofit the station with scientific equipment, equipment and provide crew spacewalks, as well as to conduct a variety of scientific research and experiments. The module consisted of three sealed compartments: instrument-cargo, instrument-scientific, and a special airlock with an outward-opening exit hatch with a diameter of 1000 mm. The module had one active docking unit installed along its longitudinal axis on the instrument and cargo compartment. The Kvant-2 module and all subsequent modules were docked to the axial docking unit of the transition compartment of the base unit (-X axis), then using a manipulator the module was transferred to the side docking unit of the transition compartment. The standard position of the Kvant-2 module as part of the Mir station is the Y axis.
Module "Crystal" was intended to conduct technological and other scientific research and experiments and to provide dockings with ships equipped with androgynous-peripheral docking units. The module consisted of two sealed compartments: instrument-cargo and transition-docking. The module had three docking units: an axial active one - on the instrument-cargo compartment and two androgynous-peripheral types - on the transition-docking compartment (axial and lateral). Until May 27, 1995, the "Crystal" module was located on the side docking unit intended for the "Spectrum" module (-Y axis). Then it was transferred to the axial docking unit (-X axis) and on 05/30/1995 moved to its regular place (-Z axis). On 06/10/1995 it was again transferred to the axial unit (-X axis) to ensure docking with the American spacecraft Atlantis STS-71, on 07/17/1995 it was returned to its normal position (-Z axis).
Module "Spectrum" was intended to conduct scientific research and experiments to study the natural resources of the Earth, the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, the own external atmosphere of the orbital complex, geophysical processes of natural and artificial origin in near-Earth space and in the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, as well as to retrofit the station with additional sources of electricity . The module consisted of two compartments: a sealed instrument-cargo compartment and an unsealed one, on which two main and two additional solar panels and scientific equipment were installed. The module had one active docking unit located along its longitudinal axis on the instrument and cargo compartment. The standard position of the Spektr module as part of the Mir station is the -Y axis. The docking compartment (created at RSC Energia named after S.P. Korolev) was designed to ensure docking of American ships of the Space Shuttle system with the Mir station without changing its configuration, delivered into orbit on the American ship Atlantis STS- 74 and docked to the Crystal module (-Z axis).
Module "Nature" was intended to conduct scientific research and experiments on the study of the Earth's natural resources, the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, cosmic radiation, geophysical processes of natural and artificial origin in near-Earth space and the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere. The module consisted of one sealed instrument and cargo compartment. The module had one active docking unit located along its longitudinal axis. The standard position of the "Nature" module as part of the "Mir" station is the Z axis.
