Introductory lesson. Subject of astronomy. History of the development of astronomy. what is astronomy? astronomy studies the structure of the universe, physical nature, origin and evolution of celestial bodies, etc. Presentation on the topic of development of astronomy

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HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY DEVELOPMENT

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What is astronomy?

Astronomy studies the structure of the Universe, the physical nature, origin and evolution of celestial bodies and the systems formed by them. Astronomy also studies the fundamental properties of the Universe around us. As a science, astronomy is based primarily on observations. Unlike physicists, astronomers are deprived of the opportunity to conduct experiments. Almost all information about celestial bodies is brought to us by electromagnetic radiation. Only in the last 40 years have individual worlds begun to be studied directly: to probe the atmospheres of planets, to study lunar and Martian soil. The scale of the observable Universe is enormous and the usual units of measuring distances - meters and kilometers - are of little use here. Others are introduced instead.

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The astronomical unit is used in the study of the solar system. This is the size of the semimajor axis of the Earth's orbit: 1 AU=149 million km. Larger units of length - the light year and parsec, as well as their derivatives - are needed in stellar astronomy and cosmology. A light year is the distance a light beam travels in a vacuum in one Earth year. Parsec is historically associated with measuring distances to stars by their parallax and is 3.263 light years = 206,265 AU. e. Astronomy is closely connected with other sciences, primarily with physics and mathematics, the methods of which are widely used in it. But astronomy is also an indispensable testing ground on which many physical theories are tested. Space is the only place where matter exists at temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees and almost at absolute zero, in the void of vacuum and in neutron stars. Recently, the achievements of astronomy have begun to be used in geology and biology, geography and history.

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Astronomy studies the fundamental laws of nature and the evolution of our world. Therefore, its philosophical significance is especially great. In fact, it determines people's worldview. The oldest of sciences. Several thousand years BC, landowners settled in the valleys of large rivers (Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow River). The calendar, compiled by the priests of the Sun and Moon, began to play the most important role in their lives. The priests carried out observations of the luminaries in ancient observatories, which were also temples. They are studied by archaeoastronomy. Archaeologists have found quite a few similar observatories.

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The simplest of them - megaliths - were one (menhirs) or several (dolmens, cromlechs) stones located in strict order relative to each other. Megaliths marked the place of sunrise and sunset at certain times of the year. One of the most famous buildings of antiquity is Stonehenge, located in Southern England. Its main function is to observe the Sun and Moon, determine the days of the winter and summer solstices, and predict lunar and solar eclipses.

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Astronomy of ancient civilizations About 4 thousand years BC. One of the oldest civilizations on Earth, the Egyptian, arose in the Nile Valley. Another thousand years later, after the unification of two kingdoms (Upper and Lower Egypt), a powerful state emerged here. By that time, which is called the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians already knew the potter's wheel, knew how to smelt copper, and invented writing. It was during this era that the pyramids were built. At the same time, the Egyptian calendars probably appeared: lunar-stellar - religious and schematic - civil. The astronomy of Egyptian civilization began precisely with the Nile. Egyptian priest-astronomers noticed that shortly before the water began to rise, two events occurred: the summer solstice and the first appearance of Sirius on the morning star after a 70-day absence from the sky. The Egyptians named Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, after the goddess Sopdet. The Greeks pronounced this name as "Sothis". By that time, Egypt had a lunar calendar of 12 months of 29 or 30 days - from new moon to new moon. To make its months correspond to the seasons of the year, a 13th month had to be added every two or three years. Sirius helped determine the timing of this month's insertion. The first day of the lunar year was considered the first day of the new moon, which occurred after the return of this star.

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Such an “observational” calendar with irregular additions of the month was poorly suited for a state where strict accounting and order existed. Therefore, for administrative and civil needs, the so-called schematic calendar was introduced. In it, the year was divided into 12 months of 30 days with the addition of an additional 5 days at the end of the year, i.e. contained 365 days. The Egyptians knew that the true year is a quarter of a day longer than the introduced one, and it is enough to add six additional days instead of five in every fourth, leap year, to harmonize it with the seasons. But this was not done. For 40 years, i.e. the life of one generation, the calendar moved forward by 10 days, not such a noticeable amount, and the scribes who managed the household could easily adapt to the slow changes in the dates of the seasons. After some time, another lunar calendar appeared in Egypt, adapted to the sliding civil calendar. In it, additional months were inserted so as to keep the beginning of the year not near the moment of the appearance of Sirius, near the beginning of the civil year. This "wandering" lunar calendar was used along with the other two.

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Ancient Egypt had a complex mythology with many gods. The astronomical ideas of the Egyptians were closely related to it. According to their beliefs, in the middle of the world was Geb, one of the ancestors of the gods, the breadwinner and protector of people. He personified the Earth. Geb's wife and sister, Nut, was Heaven itself. She was called the Huge Mother of the Stars and the One Who Gives Birth to the Gods. It was believed that she swallows the stars every morning and gives birth to them again every evening. Because of this habit of hers, there was once a quarrel between Nut and Geb. Then their father Shu, Air, raised the Sky above the Earth and separated the spouses. Nut was the mother of Ra (Sun) and the stars and ruled them. Ra in turn created Thoth (the Moon) as his deputy in the night sky. According to another myth, Ra floats along the celestial Nile and illuminates the Earth, and in the evening descends into the Duat (hell). There he travels along the underground Nile, fighting the forces of darkness in order to reappear on the horizon in the morning.

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Geocentric system of the world In the 2nd century BC. Greek scientist Ptolemy put forward his “world system”. He tried to explain the structure of the Universe, taking into account the apparent complexity of the movement of the planets. Considering the Earth to be spherical, and its dimensions are insignificant compared to the distances to the planets and especially to the stars. Ptolemy, however, following Aristotle, argued that the Earth is the fixed center of the Universe; his world system was called geocentric. The Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and stars move around the Earth according to Ptolemy (in order of distance from the Earth). But if the movement of the Moon, Sun, and stars is circular, then the movement of the planets is much more complicated.

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Each of the planets, according to Ptolemy, does not move around the Earth, but around a certain point. This point, in turn, moves in a circle, in the center of which is the Earth. Ptolemy called the circle described by the planet around a moving point an epicycle, and the circle along which a point moves near the Earth was called a deferent. This false system was accepted for almost 1,500 years. It was also recognized by the Christian religion. Christianity bases its worldview on the biblical legend of the creation of the world by God in 6 days. According to this legend, the Earth is the “concentration” of the Universe, and the celestial bodies were created in order to illuminate the Earth and decorate the firmament. Christianity mercilessly persecuted any deviation from these views. The world system of Aristotle - Ptolemy, which placed the Earth at the center of the universe, perfectly corresponded to Christian doctrine. The tables compiled by Ptolemy made it possible to determine in advance the position of the planets in the sky. But over time, astronomers discovered a discrepancy between the observed positions of the planets and the pre-calculated ones. For centuries, they thought that the Ptolemaic system of the world was simply not perfect enough and, in an attempt to improve it, they introduced new and new combinations of circular movements for each planet.

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Heliocentric system of the world The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) outlined his system of the world in the book “On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres,” published in the year of his death. In this book, he proved that the Universe is not structured at all as religion has claimed for many centuries. Long before Ptolemy, the Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. Later, in the Middle Ages, advanced scientists shared Aristarchus's point of view about the structure of the world and rejected the false teachings of Ptolemy. Shortly before Copernicus, the great Italian scientists Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci argued that the Earth moves, that it is not at all at the center of the Universe and does not occupy an exceptional position in it. Why, despite this, did the Ptolemaic system continue to dominate? Because it relied on the all-powerful church power, which suppressed free thought and interfered with the development of science. In addition, scientists who rejected the teachings of Ptolemy and expressed correct views on the structure of the Universe could not yet convincingly substantiate them. Only Nicolaus Copernicus managed to do this. After 30 years of hard work, much thought and difficult

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mathematical calculations, he showed that the Earth is only one of the planets, and all the planets revolve around the Sun. What does the book “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres” contain and why did it deal such a crushing blow to the Ptolemaic system, which, with all its flaws, was maintained for 14 centuries under the auspices of the all-powerful church? In this book, Nicolaus Copernicus argued that the Earth and other planets are satellites of the Sun. He showed that it is the movement of the Earth around the Sun and its daily rotation around its axis that explains the apparent movement of the Sun, the strange entanglement in the movement of the planets and the apparent rotation of the firmament. Copernicus simply brilliantly explained that we perceive the movement of distant celestial bodies in the same way as the movement of various objects on Earth when we ourselves are in motion. Copernicus, like the ancient Greek scientists, suggested that the orbits in which the planets move can only be circular. 75 years later, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, a successor to Copernicus, proved that if the Earth moved in space, then when observing the sky at different times it would seem to us that the stars were shifting, changing their position in the sky. But not a single astronomer has noticed such displacements of stars for many centuries. It was in this that the supporters of Ptolemy’s teachings wanted to see evidence of the immobility of the Earth. However, Copernicus argued that the stars are located at unimaginably vast distances. Therefore, their insignificant displacements could not be noticed.

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Classics of celestial mechanics The century after Newton's death (1727) became a time of rapid development of celestial mechanics - a science built on the theory of gravity. And it just so happened that the main contribution to the development of this science was made by five wonderful scientists. One of them is from Switzerland, although he worked most of his life in Russia and Germany. This is Leonardo Euler. Four others are French (Cleraud, D'Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace). In 1743, D'Alembert published his Treatise on Dynamics, which formulated the general rules for composing differential equations that describe the motion of material bodies and their systems. In 1747, he presented memoirs to the Academy of Sciences about the deviations of planets from elliptical motion around the Sun under the influence of their mutual attraction. Alexis Claude Clairaut (1713-1765) did his first scientific work on geometry when he was less than 13 years old. It was presented to the Paris Academy, where it was read by his father. Three years later, Clairaut published a new work - “On curves of double curvature.” The youth's works attracted the attention of major mathematicians. They began to seek the election of young talent to the Paris Academy of Sciences. But according to the charter, only a person who has reached 20 years of age could become a member of the Academy.

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Then the famous mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1698-1759), Alexis's patron, decided to take him to Basel to see Johann Bernoulli. For three years, Clairo listened to the lectures of the venerable scientist, improving his knowledge. Upon returning to Paris, having already reached the age of 20, he was elected to the adjunct of the Academy (junior rank of academicians). In Paris, Clairaut and Maupertuis plunged into the midst of a debate about the shape of the Earth: is it compressed at the poles or elongated? Maupertuis began preparing an expedition to Lapland to measure the meridian arc. Clairo also took part in it. Returning from Laplandia, Clairaut received the title of full member of the Academy of Sciences. His life was now secure and he was able to devote it to scientific pursuits. Joseph Louis Lagrange (1735-1813) studied and then taught at the Artillery School in Turin, becoming a professor at the age of 18. In 1759, on the recommendation of Euler, 23-year-old Lagrange was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1766 he already became its president. Lagrange's range of scientific research was unusually wide. They are devoted to mechanics, geometry, mathematical analysis, algebra, number theory, and theoretical astronomy. The main direction of Lagrange's research was the presentation of a wide variety of phenomena in mechanics from a unified point of view. He derived an equation that describes the behavior of any system under the influence of forces. In the field of astronomy, Lagrange did much to solve the problem of the stability of the solar system; proved some special cases of stable motion, in particular for small bodies located at the so-called triangular libration points. These bodies are asteroids -

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“Trojans” were discovered already in the 20th century, a century after Lagrange’s death. When solving specific problems of celestial mechanics, the paths of these scientists repeatedly crossed; They, wittingly or unwittingly, competed with each other, sometimes achieving similar results, sometimes achieving completely different results. Modern astronomy The entire history of the study of the Universe is, in essence, a search for means to improve human vision. Until the beginning of the 17th century, the naked eye was the only optical instrument of astronomers. All the astronomical technology of the ancients came down to the creation of various goniometric instruments, as accurate and durable as possible. Already the first telescopes immediately sharply increased the resolving and penetrating ability of the human eye. The universe turned out to be completely different than it seemed until then. Gradually, receivers of invisible radiation were created and currently we perceive the universe in all ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum - from gamma rays to ultra-long radio waves. Moreover, corpuscular radiation receivers have been created that capture the smallest particles - corpuscles (mainly atomic nuclei and electrons) coming to us from celestial bodies. If we are not afraid of allegories, we can say that the Earth has become sharper, its “eyes”, that is, the totality of all receivers of cosmic radiation, are capable of

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record objects from which rays of light reach us over many billions of years. Thanks to telescopes and other instruments of astronomical technology, in three and a half centuries, man has penetrated into such cosmic distances, where light - the fastest thing in this world - can only reach in billions of years! This means that the radius of the Universe studied by mankind is growing at a speed that is a huge number of times greater than the speed of light! Spectral analysis is the study of radiation intensity in individual spectral lines, in individual parts of the spectrum. Spectral analysis is a method by which the chemical composition of celestial bodies, their temperature, size, structure, distance to them and the speed of their movement are determined. In 50 years, presumably, planets will be discovered (if they exist) around the 5-10 stars closest to us. Most likely they will be detected in the optical, infrared and submillimeter wavelength ranges from extra-atmospheric installations. In the future, interstellar probe ships will appear to fly to one of the nearest stars within a distance of 5-10 light years, of course, to the one near which planets will be discovered. Such a ship will move at a speed of no more than 0.1 the speed of light using a thermonuclear engine.

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2000 years ago, the distance of the Earth from the Sun, according to Aristarchus of Samos, was about 361 Earth radii, i.e. about 2,300,000 km. Aristotle believed that the “sphere of stars” was located 9 times further. Thus, the geometric scale of the world 2000 years ago was “measured” at 20,000,000 km. With the help of modern telescopes, astronomers observe objects located at a distance of about 10 billion light years. Thus, during the mentioned period of time, the scale of the world has grown 5,000,000,000,000,000 times. According to Byzantine Christian theologies, the world was created 5508 BC, i.e. less than 7.5 thousand years ago. Modern astronomy has provided evidence that already about 10 billion years ago, the Universe accessible to astronomical observations existed in the form of a giant system of galaxies. The scale in time “grew” 13 million times. But the main thing, of course, is not the digital growth of spatial and temporal scales, although they take your breath away. The main thing is that man has finally entered the broad path of understanding the actual laws of the universe.

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END Thank you for your attention!

Pupils 10 "k" GBOUSOSH 1908 Burmistrova Tatyana and Kozlova Maria

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HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY DEVELOPMENT

What is astronomy? Astronomy studies the structure of the Universe, the physical nature, origin and evolution of celestial bodies and the systems formed by them. Astronomy also studies the fundamental properties of the Universe around us. As a science, astronomy is based primarily on observations. Unlike physicists, astronomers are deprived of the opportunity to conduct experiments. Almost all information about celestial bodies is brought to us by electromagnetic radiation. Only in the last 40 years have individual worlds begun to be studied directly: to probe the atmospheres of planets, to study lunar and Martian soil. The scale of the observable Universe is enormous and the usual units of measuring distances - meters and kilometers - are of little use here. Others are introduced instead.

END Thank you for your attention!

The astronomical unit is used in the study of the solar system. This is the size of the semimajor axis of the Earth's orbit: 1 AU=149 million km. Larger units of length - the light year and parsec, as well as their derivatives - are needed in stellar astronomy and cosmology. A light year is the distance a light beam travels in a vacuum in one Earth year. Parsec is historically associated with measuring distances to stars by their parallax and is 3.263 light years = a. e. Astronomy is closely connected with other sciences, primarily with physics and mathematics, the methods of which are widely used in it. But astronomy is also an indispensable testing ground on which many physical theories are tested. Space is the only place where matter exists at temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees and almost at absolute zero, in the void of vacuum and in neutron stars. Recently, the achievements of astronomy have begun to be used in geology and biology, geography and history.

This “observational” calendar with the irregular addition of a month was poorly suited for a state where strict accounting and order existed. Therefore, for administrative and civil needs, the so-called schematic calendar was introduced. In it, the year was divided into 12 months of 30 days with the addition of an additional 5 days at the end of the year, i.e. contained 365 days. The Egyptians knew that the true year is a quarter of a day longer than the introduced one, and it is enough to add six additional days instead of five in every fourth, leap year, to harmonize it with the seasons. But this was not done. For 40 years, i.e. the life of one generation, the calendar moved forward by 10 days, not such a noticeable amount, and the scribes who managed the household could easily adapt to the slow changes in the dates of the seasons. After some time, another lunar calendar appeared in Egypt, adapted to the sliding civil calendar. In it, additional months were inserted so as to keep the beginning of the year not near the moment of the appearance of Sirius, near the beginning of the civil year. This "wandering" lunar calendar was used along with the other two.

Each of the planets, according to Ptolemy, does not move around the Earth, but around a certain point. This point, in turn, moves in a circle, in the center of which is the Earth. Ptolemy called the circle described by the planet around a moving point an epicycle, and the circle along which a point moves near the Earth was called a deferent. This false system was recognized for almost years. It was also recognized by the Christian religion. Christianity bases its worldview on the biblical legend of the creation of the world by God in 6 days. According to this legend, the Earth is the “concentration” of the Universe, and the celestial bodies were created in order to illuminate the Earth and decorate the firmament. Christianity mercilessly persecuted any deviation from these views. The world system of Aristotle - Ptolemy, which placed the Earth at the center of the universe, perfectly corresponded to Christian doctrine. The tables compiled by Ptolemy made it possible to determine in advance the position of the planets in the sky. But over time, astronomers discovered a discrepancy between the observed positions of the planets and the pre-calculated ones. For centuries, they thought that the Ptolemaic system of the world was simply not perfect enough and, in an attempt to improve it, they introduced new and new combinations of circular movements for each planet.

Heliocentric system of the world The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus () outlined his system of the world in the book “On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres,” published in the year of his death. In this book, he proved that the Universe is not structured at all as religion has claimed for many centuries. Long before Ptolemy, the Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. Later, in the Middle Ages, advanced scientists shared Aristarchus's point of view about the structure of the world and rejected the false teachings of Ptolemy. Shortly before Copernicus, the great Italian scientists Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci argued that the Earth moves, that it is not at all at the center of the Universe and does not occupy an exceptional position in it. Why, despite this, did the Ptolemaic system continue to dominate? Because it relied on the all-powerful church power, which suppressed free thought and interfered with the development of science. In addition, scientists who rejected the teachings of Ptolemy and expressed correct views on the structure of the Universe could not yet convincingly substantiate them. Only Nicolaus Copernicus managed to do this. After 30 years of hard work, much thought and difficult

Through mathematical calculations, he showed that the Earth is only one of the planets, and all planets revolve around the Sun. What does the book “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres” contain and why did it deal such a crushing blow to the Ptolemaic system, which, with all its flaws, was maintained for 14 centuries under the auspices of the all-powerful church? In this book, Nicolaus Copernicus argued that the Earth and other planets are satellites of the Sun. He showed that it is the movement of the Earth around the Sun and its daily rotation around its axis that explains the apparent movement of the Sun, the strange entanglement in the movement of the planets and the apparent rotation of the firmament. Copernicus simply brilliantly explained that we perceive the movement of distant celestial bodies in the same way as the movement of various objects on Earth when we ourselves are in motion. Copernicus, like the ancient Greek scientists, suggested that the orbits in which the planets move can only be circular. 75 years later, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, a successor to Copernicus, proved that if the Earth moved in space, then when observing the sky at different times it would seem to us that the stars were shifting, changing their position in the sky. But not a single astronomer has noticed such displacements of stars for many centuries. It was in this that the supporters of Ptolemy’s teachings wanted to see evidence of the immobility of the Earth. However, Copernicus argued that the stars are located at unimaginably vast distances. Therefore, their insignificant displacements could not be noticed.

Classics of celestial mechanics The century after Newton's death (1727) was a time of rapid development of celestial mechanics - a science built on the theory of gravity. And it just so happened that the main contribution to the development of this science was made by five wonderful scientists. One of them is from Switzerland, although he worked most of his life in Russia and Germany. This is Leonardo Euler. Four others are French (Cleraud, D'Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace). In 1743, D'Alembert published his Treatise on Dynamics, which formulated the general rules for composing differential equations that describe the motion of material bodies and their systems. In 1747, he presented memoirs to the Academy of Sciences about the deviations of planets from elliptical motion around the Sun under the influence of their mutual attraction. Alexis Claude Clairaut () did his first scientific work on geometry when he was less than 13 years old. It was presented to the Paris Academy, where it was read by his father. Three years later, Clairaut published a new work - “On curves of double curvature.” The youth's works attracted the attention of major mathematicians. They began to seek the election of young talent to the Paris Academy of Sciences. But according to the charter, only a person who has reached 20 years of age could become a member of the Academy.

Then the famous mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (), Alexis's patron, decided to take him to Basel to see Johann Bernoulli. For three years, Clairo listened to the lectures of the venerable scientist, improving his knowledge. Upon returning to Paris, having already reached the age of 20, he was elected to the adjunct of the Academy (junior rank of academicians). In Paris, Clairaut and Maupertuis plunged into the midst of a debate about the shape of the Earth: is it compressed at the poles or elongated? Maupertuis began preparing an expedition to Lapland to measure the meridian arc. Clairo also took part in it. Returning from Laplandia, Clairaut received the title of full member of the Academy of Sciences. His life was now secure and he was able to devote it to scientific pursuits. Joseph Louis Lagrange () studied and then taught at the Artillery School in Turin, becoming a professor at the age of 18. In 1759, on the recommendation of Euler, 23-year-old Lagrange was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1766 he already became its president. Lagrange's range of scientific research was unusually wide. They are devoted to mechanics, geometry, mathematical analysis, algebra, number theory, and theoretical astronomy. The main direction of Lagrange's research was the presentation of a wide variety of phenomena in mechanics from a unified point of view. He derived an equation that describes the behavior of any system under the influence of forces. In the field of astronomy, Lagrange did much to solve the problem of the stability of the solar system; proved some special cases of stable motion, in particular for small bodies located at the so-called triangular libration points. These bodies are asteroids -

To record objects from which rays of light reach us over many billions of years. Thanks to telescopes and other instruments of astronomical technology, in three and a half centuries, man has penetrated into such cosmic distances, where light - the fastest thing in this world - can only reach in billions of years! This means that the radius of the Universe studied by mankind is growing at a speed that is a huge number of times greater than the speed of light! Spectral analysis is the study of radiation intensity in individual spectral lines, in individual parts of the spectrum. Spectral analysis is a method by which the chemical composition of celestial bodies, their temperature, size, structure, distance to them and the speed of their movement are determined. In 50 years, presumably, planets will be discovered (if they exist) around the 5-10 stars closest to us. Most likely they will be detected in the optical, infrared and submillimeter wavelength ranges from extra-atmospheric installations. In the future, interstellar probe ships will appear to fly to one of the nearest stars within a distance of 5-10 light years, of course, to the one near which planets will be discovered. Such a ship will move at a speed of no more than 0.1 the speed of light using a thermonuclear engine.

2000 years ago, the distance of the Earth from the Sun, according to Aristarchus of Samos, was about 361 Earth radii, i.e. about km. Aristotle believed that the “sphere of stars” was located 9 times further. Thus, the geometric scale of the world 2000 years ago was “measured” in kilometers. With the help of modern telescopes, astronomers observe objects located at a distance of about 10 billion light years. Thus, during the mentioned period of time, the scale of the world has grown exponentially. According to Byzantine Christian theologies, the world was created 5508 BC, i.e. less than 7.5 thousand years ago. Modern astronomy has provided evidence that already about 10 billion years ago, the Universe accessible to astronomical observations existed in the form of a giant system of galaxies. The scale in time “grew” 13 million times. But the main thing, of course, is not the digital growth of spatial and temporal scales, although they take your breath away. The main thing is that man has finally entered the broad path of understanding the actual laws of the universe.

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(“Normal” science, “normal” scientist, relativity of scientific fact, ad hoc hypotheses). T. Kuhn "Structure of Scientific Revolutions", M., 1977 website

2 AstronomyHistory of astronomy Primitive astronomy: Babylonian (priest from Babylon Berossus - observatory on the island of Kos Babylonian astronomy: the angle of the Sun at sunset time is 2 minutes, i.e. 1/720 days, therefore 360/720 = 1/2 arc. degree ), Egyptian, Arab, Chinese astronomy, Stonehenge, Nazca, Maya, etc.. Heraclitus of Ephesus (c.585-525 BC) Founder of dialectics “everything flows, everything changes” “World, one of all, not created by any of the gods and none of the people, but was, is and will be an eternally living fire, naturally ignited and naturally extinguished.” Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310-250 BC) "Copernicus of the ancient world." He believed: all planets move around the Sun, the movement is uniform. lived for some time in Alexandria, familiar with Babylonian astronomy.

3 AstronomyHistory of astronomy Hipparchus (c. 190-125 BC) Founder of astronomy. Lived in Alexandria, observatory on the island of Rhodes, basics of spherical astronomy, theory of the movement of the Sun and Moon, uneven movement of the Sun - precession of 45 "" per year, in 134 BC. observation of an SN star, a catalog of 150 stars, introduced the concept of stellar magnitudes (6 gradations). Ptolemy (c. 90-c. 160 AD) Geocentric model of the world. Lived in Alexandria. The “crime”(?) of Ptolemy is the recalculation of Hipparchus’ observational data, taking into account precession and his own observations (of low accuracy - a few arc minutes). The mathematical apparatus can also be used in modern calculations, within the limits of its accuracy. MIDDLE AGES - about 1200 years of growth in the accuracy of observations (or another chronology, A.T. Fomenko).

4 AstronomyHistory of astronomy Alfonso X the Wise (1221-1284) king of Castile and Leon, ellipse for the planets around S., (ellipse picture?) Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) dialectics, Earth is a celestial body. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Heliocentric model of the world. (K.A. Kulikov, Reasoning about the three systems of the world. (in the collection of Historical and Astronomical Research, M., 1978, p. 121) Giordano Bruno (1548-February 17, 1600) In the Inquisition 9 years, eight “heresies”, including about the plurality of inhabited worlds. The monument “From the century he foresaw, there was a fire here” was burned in Rome on the Square of Flowers, on June 9, 1889.

(c) 2001 [email protected] 5 AstronomyHistory of astronomy Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Model of the world: planets around the Sun, the Sun around the Earth. outstanding observation accuracy - up to 40"" Mars, in general up to 10"", i.e. ten times better than Ptolemy (of his era). The decisive experiment is measuring the parallax of the star: =0, which means the Earth is motionless (parallax of Proxima Centauri 0 "",762, i.e.

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(c) 2001 [email protected] 6 AstronomyHistory of astronomy Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Classical physics. The theory of gravitation - a battle for primacy with Hooke, Halley (F~1/R2). 1687 - "Mathematical principles of natural philosophy." "If I saw more than others, it was only because I stood on the shoulders of giants." From Copernicus - 1543, to Newton - 1687 - 144 years of transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism by Western civilization Discussion on a new global chronology

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